
Class S^45^<C 

Book __.ulz 4^r ^ 
Copyright N^ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



Rural School 
Agricu It u r e 



EXERCISES FOR USE WITH ANY TEXT-BOOK 

OF AGRICULTURE, OR WITHOUT 

A TEXT-BOOK 



BY 

CHARLES W. DAVIS, B.S.. M.S.A. 

Professor of Agriculture and Biology 
A^ortli Georgia Agricultural College 



ILLUSTRATED 



NEW YORK 
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

1907 






LiartAKY of CONGRESS 


I wo Cooles aecelved 


OCT 9 dOr 


-»C(inyri(rht Enfrv 
CLV^S /4 KXc, No, 
COPY B. 



Copyright, igo?, by 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

A// Kij^hts Reserved 



TO 

THE MEMORY OP MY BROTHER, 

W A. I). 

IN REMEMBRANCE OF OUR BOYHOOD DAYS 

ON THE FARM 



PREFACE 

III the preparation of this little book two classes 
of students have been considered by the author. 
First, there are those who expect to become teachers 
in rural schools where agriculture is required, and 
who have had little trainitii;- in agriculture, not only 
in the subject matter, but in methods of presenting 
the subject to students. This book then is designed 
in part for the training of teachers in normal antl 
summer sclunds. The greatest barrier in the prog- 
ress of agricultural education in rural schools is the 
lack of thoroughly trained teachers in agriculture. 
Secondly, there are those in rural districts, the ma- 
jority of whom will continue to live upon the farm, 
and whose minds should be awakened to the fact 
that the problems of the farm are great enough to 
enlist all the brain power they can summon. Let us 
once establish in the mind of the farm boy an intel- 
lectual insight into the problems of the farm, and 
the ever increasing exodus of the most enterprising 
young men of our rural districts to the city will be 
checked. 

This book is a manual of exercises covering many 
phases of agriculture. Feeling that in many in- 
stances the so-called nature study has been largely 
sentimental and urban in its leanings, the exercises 
have been prepared with a view to enlist the 
interest of the boys of the farm. The successful 
farmer of the future must be an experimenter in a 
small way. This work should begin in the public 
schools. Students should be taught to think, and to 



PREFACE VU 

work out some of the principles of scientific agricul- 
tnrc. If an experiment hel])s tlic ]Kipil to think, or 
makes his conceptions clearer, then it fills a nsefnl 
purpose. 

The French minister of education, in ^ivint^ in- 
structions "to assist the masters of rural elementary 
schools in teaching the first rudiments of agricul- 
ture," says: "Instruction in the elementary princi- 
ples of agriculture, such as can be properly included 
in the program of primary schools, ought to be ad- 
dressed less to the memory than to the intelligence 
of the children. It should 1)e based on the observa- 
tions of the every-day facts of rural life, and on a 
system of simple experiments appropriate to the re- 
sources of the school and calculated to bring out 
clearly the fundamental, scientific principles under- 
lying the most imjiortant agricultural operations. 
Above all, the pupils of the primary school should 
be taught the reasons for these operations, and the 
explanations of the phenomena which accompany 
them."' 

The author desires to acknowledge especial obliga- 
tions to Prof. C. H. Mathes, of Maryville College, for 
reading the proof of the whole book and for valuable 
criticisms; to Air. B. F. Williamson, for many new 
drawings. Thanks are due to many others for illus- 
trations used,forwhich special credit is given as they 
appear. His thanks are also due to Prof. J. W. John- 
son, of the University of Georgia, for many valuable 
suggestions. 

Charles W. D.wis. 

Daiilonega, Ga., 1907. 



CONTENTS 



EXERCISE PAGE 

Miscellaneous Exercises i i 

Plants 2;^ 50 

Soils and Fertilizers 57 95 

Corn 80 126 

Wheat and Oats 97 161 

Cotton 102 166 

Feeds and Feeding 108 178 

Milk 113 185 

Fruits 118 191 

Home Grounds 130 213 

Insects 131 216 

Spraying 141 237 

Glossary 241 

Appendix 245 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



FICURB PAGE 

I Model barn of the Iowa experiment station (showing 

round silo) Frontispiece 

1 Changes in matter 3 

3 Chemical action of copper sulphate and zinc ... 18 

4 Common harrow 40 

5 Spring-tooth harrow 40 

6 Disk harrow 41 

7 Tap root of alfalfa 51 

8 Fibrous root of raspberry 51 

9 Fleshy root of parsnip 51 

10 Air roots of poison ivy , . . . 52 

11 Brace roots of corn 53 

12 Sprouting beans 55 

13 Diagram of corn stalk, showing loss of moisture 

through leaves 58 

14 Effect of light on green leaf 60 

15 Experiment with oxygen and carbon dioxide in 

the air 62 

16 Cross-section of hardwood log 65 

17 Buds of peach 66 

18 Twining stems: morning-glory and hop 67 

19 Forms of trees: diagram of spruce and peach tree . 69 

20 Cross-section of cherry flower 71 

21 Typical stamens 72 

22 Various forms of pistils 73 

23 Strawberry blossoms 79 

24 Rose cutting taking root 80 

25 Effect of strong solutions on plant growth .... 116 

26 Nodules on soy beans 124 

27 Very poor ears 134 

28 Shape of ears 135 



X ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE PAGE 

29 Ears of various lengths 136 

30 Ears of various girths 136 

31 Various butts 137 

32 Ear tips 137 

33 Arrangement of rows 138 

34 Indentation 138 

35 Space between rows 139 

36 Closely packed kernels 139 

37 Size of cob 140 

38 Forms of kernels 141 

39 Large and small germs 141 

40 Prize ear in an Iowa contest 142 

41 Prize ears at Iowa State fair 142 

42 Chart of curves showing range of tasseling and 

silking period 146 

43 Detasseiing corn 153 

44 Harvest scene 159 

45 Cotton, showing luxuriant growth 167 

46 Chart, showing graphically the variations in number 

of bolls 171 

47 An ideal cotton plant 173 

48 Bottle and measure 189 

49 Forms of apples . . .' 192 

50 Grafting tool 199 

51 Cleft grafting 200 

52 Whip grafts 202 

53 Common budding 205 

54 Cuttings 207 

55 Results of correct and incorrect pruning . . . . 210 

56 Diagram showing results of incorrect pruning . . 211 

57 A country home 212 

58 School grounds before improvements 213 

59 School grounds after improvements 214 

60 Plan of improved school grounds 215 

61 Insidious flower-bug 217 

62 A cutworm, pupa and moth 217 

63 Bald-faced hornet 218 

64 Insect net 219 

65 Killing bottle ...'.... 220 



ILLUSTRATIONS XI 

FIGURE PAGE 

66 Spreading board 221 

67 Correct methods of pinning various insects . . . 222 

68 Green striped locust 224 

6() A dragon fly 225 

70 Dog-day harvest fly 227 

71 Common flesh fly 229 

72 Ground beetle and larva 231 

73 A click beetle 231 

74 Cabbage butterfly 235 



Rural School Agriculture 



EXERCISE 1 

CONDITIONS OF MATTER 

time: fall or spring term 

Object: To learn the three conditions of matter. 

Material needed: Three tumblers, one-half pint flour, 
zvater, pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Place upon the table three tumblers ; half fill one 
with flour ; another with water ; and leave the third 
containinj^ only air. Push a pencil into each and 
remove it. Note the difference in the results. 

How do you account for this difference? 

Can you find the surface of the contents of each 
tumbler? 

From this experiment we can derive three defini- 
tions upon the condition of matter: 

1. Matter whose particles are not free to move 
among- themselves is said to be solid. 

2. Matter whose particles are free to move among 
themselves and which has a definite surface is said 
to be liquid. 

3. Matter whose particles are free to move among 
themselves and which has no definite surface is said 
to be gas. 



2 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

QUESTIONS 

1. Could matter exist except in one of the three 
forms mentioned above? 

2. Which of the three is the commonest form of 
matter? 

3. Can you name a substance which may be con- 
verted from one form to another? 

Facts. — Plants take food from the air in a gaseous 
form. We usually apply plant food to the soil in a 
solid form, but it cannot be taken up by plants until 
it is changed to a liquid form. Most animals take 
solids as food. 



EXERCISE 2 

THE TWO CHANGES IN MATTER 

time: fall or spring term 

Object: To learn the difference between a physical and 
a chemical change. 

Material needed: Tumblers, salt, piece of glass, copper 
coin, nitric acid. 

DIRECTIONS 

I. Put a small amount of salt in a tumbler; add 
water and stir until it is. dissolved. Put a few drops 
of this solution on a piece of glass and heat gently 




FIG. 2 — CHANGES IN MATTER 
PHYSICAL CHANGE (aT LEFT) CHEMICAL CHANGE (aT RIGHT) 



4 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

until it becomes dry. What have you remaining on 
the <(lass? Taste the substance. 

2. Place a copper coin in a tumbler and add a few 
drops of nitric acid. WMiat takes place? Notice the 
color of this new solution. Pour a few drops of this 
solution on a piece of glass and dry as before. In 
which case is there a new substance formed? 

A chemical change results in a new substance. 

A physical change does not result in a new sub- 
stance. 

State the kind of change in each of the following: 

1. The burning of lime. 

2. The slaking of lime. 

3. The rusting of iron. 

4. The melting of ice. 

5. The freezing of water. 

6. The baking of bread. 

7. The souring of milk. 



EXERCISE 3 

HOW PARTICLES OF MATTER ARE HELD 
TOGETHER 

time: fall or spring term 

Object: To learn the difference between adhesion and 
cohesion. 

Material needed: Putty or chezving gum. 



DIRECTIONS 

Press a piece of putty or chewing gum against the 
wall, and leave it there. 

What prevents its falling? 

We call the force that holds the putty against the 
wall adhesion. Compare the particles of putty with 
the particles of the wall. 

We call the force that holds the particles of putty 
together cohesion. 

We now have two other definitions in regard to 
the properties of matter : 

Adhesion is the force that holds unlike particles 
together. 

Cohesion is the force that holds like particles to- 
gether. 

QUESTIONS 

What force causes the following: 

1. Soil particles to stick together? 

2. A piece of rope to resist breaking? 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

3. Two pieces of steel to stick when welded? 

4. Plastering to remain on the wall? 

5. A sponge to take up water? 

6. A bow to spring back after being bent? 
Does heat affect adhesion and cohesion? 



EXERCISE 4 

CONDENSATION 
time: fall or spring term 

Object: To learn the meaning of condensation. 

Material needed: Water, teakettle, pieee of glass. 

DIRECTIONS 

Boil some water and allow the escapinc^ steam 
to come in contact with a cold slate or piece of glass ; 
notice the formation on the slate. 

What is it? 

Which is cooler, the slate or the vapor? 

What difference would be noticed if the slate 
should he very hot? 

Facts. — Condensation is changing a vapor into a 
liquid. A liquid takes in heat when it vaporizes, but 
when a vapor condenses, it gives up heat. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What happens when we breathe into cold air? 

2. Does sprinkling the floor in very warm weather 
make the room more comfortable? 

3. Why does moisture appear on the outside of a 
pitcher of cold water upon a summer day? 

4. How are fog, cloud, snow, and rain formed? 

5. Why do we sometimes put water into a cellar 
when there is fear that the vegetables may freeze? 



EXERCISE 5 

ABSORPTION 

time: fall or spring term 

Object: To study the nature of an absorbent. 

Material needed: Charcoal, broken stone, cotton hatting, 
round bottle, vinegar. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Put a piece of freshly burned charcoal under 
water and observe what collects on the surface of 
the charcoal. What is it? Where did it come from? 
What caused it to come to the surface ? 

2. Hold a piece of freshly broken stone under 
water in the same way. Do you get the same re- 
sult? Why? 

Charcoal is porous and absorbs air and other 
gases. 

3. Break the bottom out of a round bottle, invert 
it and insert into the base of the neck a small bit 
of cotton. Fill to a height of 2 inches with powdered 
charcoal, and pour into the bottle some vinegar ; 
catch what filters through in a vessel and compare 
the color of the filtered with that of the unfiltered 
vinegar. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How has the charcoal changed the color? 

2. Why is charcoal valuable for filtering? 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 9 

3. What other substances may be used as a filter? 

4. Wliy is spring water so clear? 

5. Is the soil, under field conditions, an absorbent? 

6. Logs which have been in water for a long time 
sometimes sink. Can you explain this? 



EXERCISE 6 

ABSORPTION (Continued) 
time: fall or spring term 

Object: To study other examples of absorption. 

Material needed: lUozver pot., salt, two tumblers, beans. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Close the hole in an ordinary flower pot, put 
some water in it and throw in a handful of salt. 
After a day or two what do you observe on the out- 
side of the pot and what do you think is the reason 
for the change? 

2. Fill a ratluM- thin bottle with peas or beans; 
leave unstoppered and place the bottle under water 
for several days. What happens? Give the cause 
iov this result. 

3. Into a tumbler containing- a very strong salt 
solution put a handful of beans. Put a handful of 
beans into another ttmibler containing only fresh 
water. After three days observe and note which lot 
is swollen more. How did the salt solution alTect the 
anu)tint of water absorbed? 



EXERCISE 7 

EVAPORATION 
time: fall or spring term 

Object: To study the conditions which influence evap- 
oration. 

Material needed: Tin can, tumbler, shallow dish. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Put a cup of water upon the stove, but do not 
let it boil. Is there anything passing from the water 
into the air? What is it? Does it come from the 
surface or from below? 

Heat the water until it boils. What do you now 
see coming from the water? Is it formed at the sur- 
face or below the surface? Can you now distinguish 
between evaporation and boiling? 

2. Put like quantities of water into a narrow- 
necked bottle, a tumbler, and a shallow dish. Which 
evaporates the most quickly? Which most slowly? 
Account for this difference. 

3. Moisten a slate and observe how quickly it 
dries. Moisten the surface of the slate again and 
fan the air with it. Is there any difiference in the 
rapidity of evaporation? 

4. Moisten the slate again and hold over a lamp 
or a stove; notice if there is a still greater difiference 
in drying. Can you explain this? 



12 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

Summarize the conditions which affect the rapid- 
ity of evaporation by filling the blanks below. 

The the extent of surface, the 

the rapidity of evaporation. 

The motion of the air the rapidity 

of evaporation. 

An increase in the temperature of the air 

the rapidity of evaporation. 

Evaporation will be rapid when 

the air is dry than when it is moist. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What kind of weather is most favorable for 
rapid evaporation? 

2. Why do the blades of corn curl up during dry 
weather ? 

3. Would level culture or ridge cultivation cause 
a soil to lose the more moisture? Why? 



EXERCISE 8 



COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE 
time: whenever convenient 

Object: To represent graphically the percentage of the 
various constituents of the atmosphere. 

Material needed: Paper and pencil. 



COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE 

Oxygen 20.60 per cent. 

Nitrogen 77-^^ per cent. 

Water vapor. 1.40 per cent. 

Carbon dioxide 04 per cent. 

Argon 78 per cent. 

DIRECTIONS 

With diagram in Exercise 108 as a model, con- 
struct a diagram showing graphically the composi- 
tion of the atmosphere. 

Facts. — Besides the substances named above, we 
should name ammonia, nitric acid, and ozone (an ac- 
tive form of oxygen). Ninety-seven per cent, of all 
materials which are built into the tissues of plants 
comes from the atmosphere. Only a small portion 
comes from the soil. 



EXERCISE 9 

PROPERTIES OF CARBON DIOXIDE 
time: fall or spring term 

Object: To learn by simple experiments some of the 
properties of carbon dioxide. 

Material needed: Mason jar, candle, zvire, linie-zvater, 
marble chips, rubber ttibe, tumbler, hydrochloric acid. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Mount a piece of candle on a J-shaped wire and 
lower it into a quart Mason jar. 

What is in the jar besides air? 

2. Put some chips of marble into the jar and cover 
with water ; add a sufficient amount of hydrochloric 
acid to keep up a vigorous chemical action for a 
while. Carbon dioxide is being formed, as shown by 
the efifervescence. 

Lower the candle slowly into the jar. 
What happens? 

Will carbon dioxide support combustion? 
Will air support combustion? 
Lower, by means of a string, a small beaker of 
lime-water and observe what happens. This is 
caused by the carbon dioxide uniting with the lime 
to form calcium carbonate. 

3. Pour more hydrochloric acid into the jar until 
chemical action again becomes vigorous; place one 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 1 5 

end of a rubber tube in the jar and suck the other 
end; when you taste the carbon dioxide (it is not 
poisonous) lower the outer end of the tube into a 
tumbler. Pour the contents of the tumbler upon a 
candle flame. 

How does it afifect the flame? 

What kind of taste does carbon dioxide have? 

Why is it wise to lower a lighted candle into the 
bottom of an unused well or mine? 

In what respect is carbon dioxide like water? 

How do plants purify the air? 

How do animals and plants dififer with respect to 
carbon dioxide? 



EXERCISE 10 

ASSIMILATION AND RESPIRATION 
time: fall or spring term 

Object: To learn the difference between assimilation 
and respiration. 

Material needed: Note-book, pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Observe the contrast between assimilation and 
respiration given below. Notice that one is sub- 
stantially opposite to the other. This table is taken 
from Goodale's Physiological Botany. 



Assimilation Proper 


Respiration 


Takes place only in cells con- 


Takes place in all active 


taining chlorophyll. 


cells. 


Requires light. 


Can proceed in darkness. 


Carbonic acid absorbed, oxy- 


Oxygen absorbed, carbonic 


gen set free. 


acid set free. 


Carbohydrates formed. 


Carbohydrates consumed. 


(Energy is stored.) 


(Energy is brought into use.) 


The plant gains in dry weight. 


The plant loses dry weight. 



EXERCISE 11 

PLANTS SELECTING THEIR FOOD 
time: fall or spring term 

Object: To show artificially how plants may select their 
food. 

Material needed: Blucstone, three earth enzvare cups, 
three lamp chimneys, zinc, red ink, salt, bladder. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Prepare a strong solution of copper sulphate 
and place in an earthen or china cup or shallow dish. 
The solution is made by dissolving bluestone in 
water. Tie a piece of bladder around one end of a 
lamp chimney, partly fill with water, and set it in the 
glass containing the copper sulphate solution. Drop 
into the chimney a piece of zinc. 

2. Prepare a second solution by dissolving eosin 
or red diamond dye in water. Red ink will do. 
Place in this solution a lamp chimney prepared as 
above with the pieces of zinc. 

3. Prepare a third solution by dissolving common 
salt in water, and place in this another lamp chimney 
prepared as in the two cases above. 

In the first condition, the copper sulphate is formed 
by the union of copper and sulphuric acid. The cop- 
per sulphate passes through the membrane, and 
when it comes in contact with the zinc a chemical 



i8 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



chanoo takes place. The copper is separated from 
the sulphuric acid and is de|)()sited on the zinc. 

in the second condition, the eosin or coloring' mat- 
ter is not taken np hy the zinc, bnt is taken np by 
the membrane, which is highly colored. 

EXPLANATION 

In the third condition, the salt in solution passes 
through the mend)rane and remains in its original 



COPPER SULPHATE\V 
SOLUTION 




FIG. 3 — CHEMIC.VL ACTION OF COITEK SULrU.ME .\N1) ZINC 



strength. It is not taken up by the glass, the 
membrane, nor the metal. The passing of solutions 
through a membrane, as in this experiment, is called 
L^smosis. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE I9 

This experiment shows artificially how plants se- 
lect their food by absorbing- by osmosis certain ele- 
ments to the partial or total exclusion of others. 
When a plant is grown in a solution of sodium 
nitrate, all of the nitrogen will be absorbed and util- 
ized, while the sodium (unless it be a trace) is left in 
solution. 



EXERCISE 12 

THE NATURE OE SOLUTIONS 
time: fall term 

Object: To learn the nature of solutions. 

Material needed: AkoJiol, caui[>hor gitin, shallozi' disli, 
tuiiiblers, niarbies, fine seeds, sugar, hot and cold zvater. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Dissolve a bit of camphor gum in a small bot- 
tle of alcohol ; pour a small part of this solution into 
a shallow dish and leave initil the alcohol has evap- 
orated. Observe that the camphor remains in the 
dish. We say the camphor has been dissolved, and 
explain this by supposing" the camphor has been sep- 
arated into particles too small to be seen, and that 
these tiny particles fit in between the particles of al- 
cohol. Illustrate this by filling" a glass with marbles ; 
then pour small shot or fine seeds into the spaces 
between the marbles. By this .we may understand 
also that water is porous. 

2. Use two glasses ; put some hot water into one, 
and cold water into the other. Into each glass put 
the^same amount of sugar, stir rapidly, and notice that 
the sugar disappears first in the hot water. In the 
hot water the particles are farther apart, hence it has 
more pore space and can take up the sugar faster. 
Evaporate the water in one of the glasses to dryness 
and recover the dissolved sugar. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 21 

3. You will observe that a teakettle in which 
water is boiled usually becomes coated inside with 
a whitish or brownish deposit. Water contains cer- 
tain amounts of mineral matter in solution, and 
when the water is evaporated from the kettle the 
mineral matter remains behind just as in the experi- 
ment with the camphor and sugar. 

Facts. — Plants, unlike animals, cannot use solid 
food ; it must be dissolved. Water dissolves plant 
food from the soil grains and carries it in solution 
to the various parts of the plant. This mineral mat- 
ter in solution which is taken from the soil consti- 
tutes the ash of plants. 



EXERCISE 13 

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT AMOUNTS OF AIR UPON 
PLANT GROWTH 

time: from APRIL UNTIL OCTOBER 

Object: To find how decreasing the amount of air by 
excessive amounts of water affects the growth of plants. 

Material needed: Five tumblers, seeds, soil, scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

Fill five tumblers almost full of rich soil and plant 
the same number of seeds in each. To the first add 
one-half teaspoonful of water each day; double the 
amount for each succeeding tumbler. After three 
Aveeks there should be a vast difiference in the ap- 
pearance of the yoimg plants. Which plant seems 
to have done the best? Did the plant receiving the 
least amount of water suffer? If so, why? 

W^eigh the soil which seemed to have the right 
amount of water, dry thoroughly in a stove and 
weigh the dry soil. Calculate the per cent, of water. 

Saturate with water the same soil used above ; 
weigh, dry in a stove, and weigh again. Calculate 
the per cent, of water in the saturated soil. Com- 
pare the water-holding capacity of the soil with 
amount of water for best jrrowth. 



EXERCISE 14 

PLANTS RESISTANT TO DROUTH 

time: during warm weather 

Object: To find some plants little affected by drouth. 

Material needed: Potted cactus, hoxiselcek, begonia, 
squash or cucumber. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. For this exercise select the following plants: 

Prickly pear cactus. 

Houseleek. 

Begonia. 

Squash or cucumber. 

2. Let the plants be growing in pots and well 
rooted. ^Vater the four plants and set them in a 
warm, sunny place. Observe every 24 hours, and 
when any plant begins to wilt, water and remove it. 
Keep a record of the time required for each plant to 
begin to wilt. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why do some plants wilt sooner than others? 

2. Do you think this is due in any way to the 
structure of the leaves? 

3. What kind of soil or exposure is natural to each 
of the plants used in this exercise? 



EXERCISE 15 

THE EFFECT OF COLD ON PLANTS 
time: during freezing weather 

Object: To determine the effect of cold on plants. 

Material needed: Plant in pot, snozv, potatoes, can. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Place a pot plant in a cool place and apply snow 
to the soil in the pot for two or three days ; use care 
so as not to allow the plant to freeze. Let the pot 
stand in a pan to catch the water formed by the 
melting of the snow. Why do the leaves wilt? 

2. Expose some potatoes to the cold until they are 
frozen ; divide in two lots, and place one lot in a 
can of water chilled by ice. Keep them in the can 
tmtil the water reaches the temperature of the room. 
This should take several hours. Place the second 
kit near the fire so the potatoes may thaw quickly. 
Observe any dififercnces in the appearance of the 
two lots. 

3. Sprinkle some frosted plants with cold water 
and cover to protect them from the rays of the sim. 
Later, compare the treated with the untreated plants. 

Facts. — In freezing, the cells are ruptured and the 
sap oozes out into the tissues ; when the plant is 
thawed out slowly, the cells have time to re-absorb 
the sap. If the plant is thawed quickly, the sap can- 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 25 

not be taken np and the plant will die ; then, too, if 
the thawing is done qnickly the disorganized proto- 
jilasni cannot readjust itself. 

Cold prevents the formation of chlorophyll or 
green coloring matter in the leaves, checks respira- 
tion, or the breathing process of plants, ruptures the 
cells, and produces chemical changes in the proto- 
plasm of the cells. The most familiar change is the 
conversion of starch into sugar. 



EXERCISE 16 

ORGANIC AND INORGANIC iMATTER 

time: during the winter 

Object: To show that hay contains both organic and 
inorganic matter. 

Material needed: Dry hay, shovel, piece of wire. 

DIRECTIONS 

Place some very dry hay in a shovel and heat on 
top of a good bed of coals. After a few minutes, if 
the contents are still black, break up the pieces with 
a wire and continue to heat until the charred re- 
mains become gray. The organic matter has now 
passed into the air, while the inorganic matter is left 
behind in the form of ash. The ash is mineral mat- 
ter which the plant has taken from the soil. 

The ash of plants contains the following ingredi- 
ents : potash 2 to 8 per cent. ; phosphoric acid i to 
2 per cent. ; and lime 30 to 35 per cent. 



EXERCISE 17 

MODES OF DISSEMINATING SEEDS 
time: fall or spring term 

Object: To classify plants according to their mode of 
disseminating seeds. 

Material needed: Paper and pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Make a list of plants and place them in the col- 
umns below according to their means of disseminat- 
inof their seed. 



Water 



Mechanical 
Contrivances 



Artificial 
Means 



EXERCISE 18 

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS 

time: whenever convenient 

Object: To classify plants of your section according 
to De CandoUe's classification. 

Material needed: Paper and pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

De Candolle classifies the species of plants as 
shown below, also giving number of each. Find the 
number of plants of each group in your community 
and fill in the blanks in the following table : 

y^, ./- .. c c ■ No. in No. in your 

Classification of Species ^^^,j ^^^^.^^ 



Cultivated for the underground parts ^2 

Cultivated for the stems or leaves 65 

Cultivated for the flowers or iheir envel- 
opes 4 

Cultivated for their fruits 77 

Cultivated for their seeds 64 

Cryptogam cultivated for whole plant i 



Write a list of each class. 



EXERCISE 19 

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS AS ANNUALS, 
BIENNIALS, AND PERENNIALS 

time: whenever convenient 

Object: To classify plants with respect to their duration 
of life. 

Material needed : Paper and pencil. 

Annuals are herbs which spring from seed, 
blossom, mature their fruit and seed, and then die, 
root and all, the first season. They are fibrous 
rooted. 

Biennials grow the first season without blos- 
soming, usually store up food in their roots, blossom 
and seed the following season, and then die com- 
pletely. 

Perennials live and blossom year after year. 

DIRECTIONS 

From a list of plants furnished by the instructor, 
fill in blank columns below according to duration 
of life. 



Annuals 




Perennials 



EXERCISE 20 

NATURE'S PLANTING OF SEEDS 

time: when germination begins in the spring 

Object: To determine Nature's depth and rate of plant- 
ing seeds. 

Material needed : Fk'e shallow pans or boxes. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Select a spot of ground which has not been dis- 
turbed for one season. Mark off a space 12 inches 
square and from this remove a layer of soil, i inch 
deep, and place in a shallow pan or box. Repeat the 
process until \^ou have removed six layers of soil 
to a depth of 6 inches. Care must be taken so that 
the surrounding- soil shall not fall into the excavation 
while the soil is being removed. 

2. Label the pans and put in a warm place. Keep 
moist and wait for the seeds to germinate. As the 
seedlings appear above the ground, pull them up and 
keep a record of the number. 

3. Mark off another square by the side of the first 
one, and count the number of seedlings that appear. 
Watch from time to time and count the number that 
die. 

QUESTIONS 

I. Which layer of soil contained the greatest num- 
ber of seedlings? 



RURAL SCHOOL AORTCULTURE 3I 

2. Why did a minil)er of seedlings die? 

3. How many of the young plants could you 
identify? 

4. Go into a forest and note all evidences of a 
struggle for existence among the trees and plants 
growing there. 

5. Is the struggle greatest between plants of the 
same kind, or between those of different kinds? 



EXERCISE 21 

NUMBER OF SKICDS TRODUCED BY PLANTS 

time: WIIKNKVER CONVENIENT 

Object: To study the productiveness of plants. 

Material luwiai: Paf^cr atid pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. The followino- (lata are given in Kerner's Nat- 
ural History of I'Uvits: 

a. An average hedge mnstani i^lant (Sisyinhritiin 
sopliia) yields 730.000 seeds. 

b. Meahane (l:rii:;croii caiiadciisc) yields T20,ooo 
seeds. 

c. Shepherd's purse {Capsclla biirsa-pastoris) 
yields ()4,ooo seeds. 

(/. Plantain (Plaiifai:;o iiiajor) yields 14.000 seeds. 
c. Henhane {Hyoscyaunis "'.i^t''') yielils 10,000 
seeds. 

2. Starting- with one plant of each of the species 
mentioned, and supposing each seed to ripen and 
grow, how many seeds would be produced each year 
up to and including the fifth? Allowing 40 jilants 
to the scpiare yard, at this rate of j^roduction how 
k»ng woukl it take each species to cover the State? 



EXERCISE 22 

VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE FARMER 
time: whenever convenient 

Object: To learn whether it pays to protect the birds. 

Material iwi'dcd: Paper and pencil. 

Facts. — Insects feed on the yonnt:^ and tender foli- 
ag'c of growin,!^ plants, l)ut no i)art of the plant is 
entirely free from them — some insects attack the 
seed, others the fniit, stem, or roots, liirds prey 
largely npon injurious insects. Not only do they de- 
stroy great numbers of insects, but they eat great 
quantities of weed-seeds as well. The State of 
Illinois loses annually $20,000,000 by the ravages of 
insects. This means about 56 cents an acre. 

DIRECTIONS 

Suppose the damage done b\' insects in your State 
is 50 cents an acre, what would be the damage for 
the entire State? 

Sup])ose tliere are four birds to the acre, how 
many would there be in the State? 

If each l)ir(l eats 20 insects a day (a fair estimate), 
how niain' insects would be destroyed during the 
months of June, Jul}-, and .\ugust? 

Su])pose one half of the birds in the State should 
eat one fourth of an ounce of seed each day for three 
months, how many ])ounds of wced-seetls would be 
destroyed? 



EXERCISE 23 

ROTATION OF CROPS 
time: whenever convenient 

Object: To learn the best system of rotation for your 
section, and compare this system with the one practiced 
on the farm at home. 

Material needed: Paper and pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

The system of rotation given below is the one 
practiced by the North Carolina Agricultural Col- 
lege. Study it carefully and give reasons for each 
crop's position in the table. Construct a table show- 
ing the system of rotation as practiced on your home 
farm, and let it be discussed before the class. Con- 
trast your system with the one given below. \\' hat 
farmer in vour comnuinitv has the best svstem? 



First 


Year 


Second Year 


Third Year 


Summer 


Winter 


Siinuner 


Winter 


Summer 


Winter 


Corn 


Crimson 
clover 


Cotton 


Uheai 


Co%v peas 


Rye /or 
pasture 



QUESTIONS 

I. What crops might be substituted in the system 
abov? ? 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 35 

2. What crops are nitrogen gatherers? 

3. What crops furnish forage for live stock? 

4. What crops on account of their tillage bring 
about weed destruction? 

5. What crops would be considered ready-money 
crops ? 



EXERCISE 24 

FIELD STUDY OF CEREALS 

time: summkr and fall 

Object: To make a comparison of the five great cereals. 

Material iiccdcil: J'iclds. paf'cr and pcitcil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Sliul}- in llio field a number of stalks each of corn, 
wheat, oats. rye. and barley and tabulate your re- 
sults as follows : 



is 


1- 


O u 

on 

:2;S 


d J; 


5- 
d = 


< 


« u ^ 
1^ o o 


Corn 

Wheal 

Oats 

Rye 

Barley 















EXERCISE 25 

STAND OF CLOVER 

time: spring term 

Object: To find why some farmers fail to get a good 
"catch" of clover. 

Material needed: Garden rake, clover seed, scythe. 

DIRECTIONS 

Lay out two small plots on a piece of ground 
which has l)een previously seeded to wheat or oats. 
Durinc^ the latter part of March seed each plot to 
clover. When the oats are just heading', cut them 
from one plot, and leave the other plot unmolested. 
The second plot may be harvested when the grain is 
ripe. 

Observe late in the fall to see which plot of clover 
has withstood the dry weather better. 

Facts. — The majority of farmers sow clover in 
fields which have already been seeded to wheat or 
oats. The result is, if there is a drought during the 
following summer, a great number of young clover 
plants die for lack of water. The large amount of 
water needed to ripen the grain depletes the water 
in the soil, so that the young plants suffer. It takes 
about 325 pounds of water to ripen one pound of 
grain, so in cutting the oats before they ripen, we 
help the clover plants through the summer. 



EXERCISE 26 

SEEDING ALFALFA 

time: fall or spring term 

Object: To learn how to seed alfalfa. 

Material needed: Flozv, liarrozv. subsoil plow, alfalfa 
seed, manure, inoculating material. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Select a well drained loam soil on the home 
farm. It should have a good subsoil. Turn, sub- 
soil, and harrow until the soil is thoroughly pulver- 
ized. Much depends upon getting a good seed bed. 

2. Apply a good coating of stable manure and har- 
row until it is well incorporated with the soil. You 
cannot succeed with alfalfa if your soil is acid. Ex- 
ercise 59 gives instructions for testing the acidity 
of soils. If you find the soil is acid, you can neutral- 
ize it by an application of lime. 

3. You may sow the seed either in the fall or in 
the spring. Fall seeding is better, provided it is 
done early enough for the young plants to get a good 
start before freezing weather. Being bothered with 
troublesome weeds is the greatest objection to seed- 
ing in the spring. 

4. If seeded in the fall, sow about the first week 
in October in the South ; in September in the north- 
ern States. Sow at the rate of 20 pounds an acre. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 39 

5. On most soils of the South inoculation is neces- 
sary. Find if it is necessary in your section. Write 
to the United States Department of Agriculture for 
inoculating material. Instructions are sent with 
each package. 

Another method of inoculating is to secure soil 
from a field where alfalfa thrives well and broad- 
cast it over the field, either before or after it is 
seeded. From one to three bushels of soil is 
sufficient. 



EXERCISE 27 



HARROWS 



time: fall or spring term 



Object: To find the number of harrows in the com- 
munity, the kind of harrows, and the purpose for which 
they are used. 

Material needed: Paper and pencil. 




FIG. 4 — COMMON HARROW 




FIG. 5 — SPRING-TOOTH HARROW 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 4I 




FIG. 6 — DISK HARROW 

EXPLANATION 

There are three classes of harrows : 
T. Those that press or fine the soil — common har- 
rows or drags. 

2. Those that lift and tear the soil — spring-tooth 
harrows. 

3. Those that slice the soil in action — disk har- 
rows. 

DIRECTIONS 

Make a list of all the farmers in your community 
who possess harrows, and name the class to which 
each harrow belongs. 

Let each student write an essay on the use of the 
harrow. 



EXERCISE 28 

CUTTING POTATOES FOR PLANTING 
time: march or april 

Object: To learn whether the number of eyes or the 
size of the pieces affects the yield of potatoes. 

Material needed: Hoe, knife, potatoes. 

DIRECTIONS 

In the school garden, or at home, lay out six rows 
of equal length and equal distance apart. Use one 
row only for each size. The following sizes or meth- 
ods of cutting may be used : 

1. Whole potatoes. 

2. Halves. 

3. Quarters. 

4. Two eyes. 

5. One eye. 

6. Peelings. 

Harvest the potatoes, weigh, note the number of 
large potatoes and tabulate the results as follows : 



Whole 
Potatoes 


H.->lves 


Quarters 


Two Eyes 


One Eye 


Peelings 


P3 


!; 
►J S 

1- 


6j= 


rt 


0-^ 
PQ 


a 


(a 


V 

rt 

►J s 


1^ 
'^ 3 

03 


MS 

« 


^1 


V 

« 2 
1- 



























EXERCISE 29 

HILLING POTATOES 
time: spring and summer 

Object: To determine whether ridge cultivation or 
level culture should be practiced in growing potatoes. 

Material needed: Potatoes, hoe, plozv. 

DIRECTIONS 

Ask the students to plant the potatoes at home. 
Divide the patch into two parts. Cultivate one part 
level just as corn is cultivated, but hill up the other 
half. At digging time note any difference in the 
yield. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Which gives the greater yield? 

2. How do you account for the difference? 

3. Which method requires more labor? 

4. Which part loses more moisture? Why? 



EXERCISE 30 

A COMPARISON OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 

OF YOUR STATE WITH THOSE OF 

OTHER STATES 

time: fall or spring term 

Object: To learn whether the products of farms of this 
State compare favorably with the products of other States. 

Material needed: Paper and pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Take your data from the Year-book of the United 
States Department of Agriculture (1905) and con- 
struct graphic charts, using chart below as a model. 
Compare the following products : 

1. Corn : acreage, production, and value of crop. 

2. Cotton: acreage, production, and value of crop. 

3. Wheat: acreage, production, and value of crop. 

4. Oats : acreage, production, and value of crop. 

5. Hay: acreage, production, and value of crop. 



1. Horses: number, value, and average price per 
head. 

2. Mules : number, value, and average price per 
head. 

3. Milch cows : number, value, and average price 
per head. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



45 



4. Sheep : nunil^er, value, and average price per 
head. 

5. Hogs : number, value, and average price per 
head. 



YIELD OF CORN PER ACRE 



Iowa 

Illinois 

Virginia 

Alabama 

South Atlantic States. . 



ig.2 
12.8 



EXERCISE 31 

CROP SUMMARY 
time: fall and spring terms 

Object: To teach students how to keep a complete 
record of crops and the management of fields. 

Material needed: Paper and pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Use the form g-iven below, and let each student 
keep a complete record of one or more fields on the 
farm at home. Make an effort to secure the coopera- 
tion of the patrons in this work. This should l)e a 
means of inducing the farmers to keep, year by year, 
a record of the production of each field. Impress 
upon students the importance of being exact in keep- 
ing records. 



Name County District P. O. 

Crop 



Season. . . .Previous Crop. . . .Kind of Soil. . . .No. of Acres. 



SOIL PREPARATION 



Date of plowing. 
Implement used. 
Depth plowed. . . 
Cost of plowing. 



Date of cultivation 

Implement used 

Cost of preparing seed bed. 
Condition of land when 
seeded 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 
CROP SEEDING AND CULTIVATION 



HARVEST AND YIELD 



47 



Date of seeding 


Cost of fertilizer 


Rate of seeding 

Cost of seed 


Date of germination 


Dates of cultivation 


Kind of fertilizer 


Implement used 

Cost of cultivation 


Am't of fertilizer an acre. . . . 







Date of harvest 

Time from seeding to har- 
vest 

Cost of harvest ... 

Total cost of crop 

Total cost an acre 

Drilled or not drilled 

Rust 

Smut 



Quality of grain 

( Grain 

Yield \ 

( Fodder 

( Grain 

Yield an acre -j 

( Fodder 

If cotton, pounds an acre. 

Stand of crop 

Height of crop 



EXERCISE 32 

AN INVENTORY 
time: whenever convenient 

Object: To learn how to make an inventory of property 
on the home farm. 

Material needed: Paper and pencil . 

DIRECTIONS 

I. Let each student make a list of the real and 
personal property, with values, owned by his 
parents. Use the following as a model : 

INVENTORY OF MAPLE GROVE FARM. JANUARY I, I907 

Assets 

300 acres land, with buildings $6,000 

5 head of horses 750 

12 cows 360 

15 steers 45° 

20 sheep 50 

25 hogs 150 

Poultry 50 

Farm machinery 600 

Oats, 200 bushels 80 

Wheat, 300 bushels 240 

Corn, 500 bushels 250 

Cotton, 10 bales 500 

Corn stover 175 

Household furniture 275 

Hay, 25 tons 120 

$10,050 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 49 

Liabilities 

Mortgage on farm $1,500 

Personal accounts 250 

Outstanding notes 350 

$2,100 

Net capital $7,950 

2. Have students make another inventory one 
year hence for comparison. 



EXERCISE 33 

MEANS OF STUDYING ROOT GROWTH 
timk: DURiNc (;k()vvin(; weather 

Object: To learn a method by which we may study the 
growth of roots. 

Material needed: Nail ke}:^ or barrel, graz'cl, seeds, 
knife, box with glass side. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. In an ordinary nail kci; bore four or fiv^c holes 
in the hottoni to provide j^ood drainaj^e. Next i)Ut 
in a ^^^-inch layer of L;ra\el and sink the ke.i;- almost 
to the top in the ground. I'"ill with rieh soil mixed 
with sand, i'lant seeds and lea\e for li\'e or six 
weeks nn(k'r held eonditions. Remoxe the barrel, 
tear away the sta\es and wash all the soil from the 
roots. ( )bserve how the roots are distributed 
through the soil. Separate all the roots, both lar<:^c 
and small, and lind the total leni^th of the roots. 

2. Construct a box with one side of i^^lass ; fill with 
sand and plant seeds down by the side of the t^^lass. 
Kee[) the qlass covered so as to have darkness, and 
keep the sand moist. Examine the growth of the 
roots daily. 

3. riant seeds at various depths and notice their 
behavior. 



EXERCISE 34 



FORMS OF ROOTS 
time: fall ok spring term 



Object: To study the different forms of roots. 

Material needed: Paper and pencil. 




FIG. 7 FIG. 9 

TAP ROOT OF FIG. 8 — FIBROUS ROOT OF RASPBERRY FLESHY ROOT OF 
ALFALFA PARSNIP 



52 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 




FIG. 10 — AIR ROOTS OF POISON IVY 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 53 




FIG. 1 1 — BRACE ROOTS OF CORN 



54 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Yon will observe by the cuts in this exercise 
that plants have various kinds of roots. Study these 
forms carefully and see if you can think of any ad- 
vantages in each particular kind. 

2. Make a list of plants and group them in the fol- 
lowing table, according to their form of root system : 



Tap Roots 



Fibrous Roots 



Brace Roots 



Air Roots 



Fleshy Roots 



QUESTIONS 

1. Do air roots take in plant food? 

2. What difference do you notice in the appear- 
ance of the roots of trees which have long been ex- 
posed to the air by the soil having been washed 
away ? 

3. VVhv do some plants send their roots deep into 
the soil while others keep them near the surface? 

4. Does the amount of plant food or moisture af- 
fect the depth to which plants send their roots in the 
soil? 



EXERCISE 35 

DIRECTION OF GROWTH OF ROOTS 

time: when weather is vWarm 

Object: To learn the direction of root growth and the 
things which influence this direction. 

Material needed: Peas, soil, tumbler, small dish, three 
clothes-pins, mercury, zvooden box (12 x 10 x j inches), 
wire netting, sawdust, blotting paper. 

DIRECTIONS 

I. Place some peas which have germinated upon 
moist soil with the radicles (roots) pointing in differ- 
ent directions. Cover with a glass to prevent evap- 










;;;"! 
I'!:ii;i:' 



FIG. 12 — SPROUTING BEANS 



oration and watch closely. Do the root-tips point 
downward? Do you think the tips of the roots drop 
downward by their own weight? 



56 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

2. Fasten three clothes-pins to the side of a small 
dish, and pour into it some mercury. To each of 
the clothes-pins pin germinating peas and allow the 
tips of the roots to rest on the surface of the mercury. 
Pour on enough water partly to submerge the seeds. 
What direction do the tips of the roots take? Do 
they bend by their own weight? 

3. Does light, moisture, air, warmth, or food in- 
fluence the direction of growth? Let us carry the 
experiment further. In a small box, not over 
3 inches deep, having a bottom of wire netting and 
filled with damp sawdust to one half its depth, place 
some seeds which have just started to germinate 
and fill the box with sawdust of equal moisture with 
that in the bottom of the box. Now cover with blot- 
ting paper or cloth and keep moist. Hang up the 
box so the bottom can be observed. 

You will observe: (i) that air, light, and warmth, 
come mostly from below; (2) moisture is about 
equally abundant above and below ; (3) and the 
same amount of sawdust is above and under the 
seed. 

Now, why does the root grow downward? 



EXERCISE 36 

ARTIFICIAL ROOT-HAIR 

time: fall or spring term 

Object: To represent by artificial means the manner 
in which root-hairs take in plant food. 

Material needed: Egg, vinegar, glass tube, sugar, tum- 
bler, thread. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Break a small hole in one end of an o^gg and 
pour out the contents ; soak the shell in weak acid or 
vinegar until the shell is dissolved. Insert a small 
glass tube into the membrane and tie firmly. 

2. Now pour into the tube a thick sirup, made of 
sugar and water, until it rises a short distance above 
the membrane. Mark the height to which the sirup 
stands and submerge the membrane in a tumbler 
of water. What happens to the liquid in the tube? 

3. Make a stronger sirup and submerge the mem- 
brane in it and note what happens to the fluid in the 
tube. 

Facts. — Root-hairs act in the same way as the 
membrane. This passage of water into the root- 
hairs or through the membrane is called osmosis. 
Strong solutions of salts as found in salt marshes, 
alkali soils, and peat l)ogs interfere with the absorp- 
tion of moisture by the root-hairs, and in some cases 
the water is even taken from the roots. 



58 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 




FIG. 13 



DIAGRAM OF CORN STALK, SHOWING LOSS OF 
MOISTURE THROUGH LEAVES 



EXERCISE 37 

TRANSPIRATION OF WATER BY PLANTS 

time: when corn is tasseling 

Object: To learn that plants absorb water and plant 
food through the stem, and lose water through the leaves. 

Material needed: Three zvide-nwuthed bottles, corn 
plants, red ink, zvhite iiowers. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Fill two wide-mouthed bottles with water and 
put two freshly cut corn plants of equal size in them. 
.With a sharp knife or pair of scissors cut off one 
half of the leaves of one stalk ; set aside and note 
the difference in the loss of water from the two 
bottles. 

2. Prepare a third bottle in the same way, but 
have the water colored with red ink. What hap- 
pens to the stalk ? Try white flowers also and note 
what occurs. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Do plants absorb moisture through the leaves? 

2. Carry out an experiment which will demon- 
strate the answer to the first question. 

3. Do plants use food in a solid state? 

4. Why does the amount of water in streams and 
in wxlls someti^mes increase in the fall, even when 
there has not been rain? 

5. Do you know of any means by which plants 
reduce transpiration? 



EXERCISE 38 



SUNLIGHT AND LEAVES 



time: whex leaves are green 

Object: To determine the effect of sunlight on the 
green coloring matter of plants. 

Material needed: Board, cork, pins, plant in pot. 



DIRECTIONS 

Place a board on the green grass and let it re- 
main for ten days, then notice if a change has taken 




FIG. 14 — effect ok light OX GREEX LEAF 

place. How do you account for this change? Ex- 
amine the same spot again in a few days, the board 
having been left ofif. AMiat do you notice at this 
time ? 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 6l 

Fasten two thin, flat pieces of cork to a leaf, as 
shown in Fig. 14, and examine after a few days. 
How do you account for what you see then? 

Try the same experiment by pinning the cork to 
a leaf of a pot plant ; keep the plant in the dark. 
Do you get the same result in this case ? The green 
color of leaves is due to chlorophyll. 

Facts about Chlorophyll. — Chlorophyll is made up 
of tiny green grains whose work is to manufacture 
starch. These green grains can perform their work 
only while the sun is shining. It is for this reason 
that potato shoots grown in a dark cellar are always 
white. Chlorophyll, in the presence of sunlight, acts 
upon the absorbed carbon dioxide, thus producing 
a chemical change ; the carbon dioxide is broken up, 
the carbon is united with water, forming starch, 
while the oxygen in the carbon dioxide is given back 
to the air. 



EXERCISE 39 

DECOMPOSITION OF CARBON DIOXIDE BY 
LEAVES 

time: during growing weather 

Object: To determine whether leaves decompose car- 
bon dioxide. 

Material needed: Cork, candle, shalloiv vessel, fruit- 
jars. 

DIRECTIONS 

Fasten a lighted candle to a flat piece of cork so 
it will float ; set it in a shallow vessel of water and 
invert a fruit-jar over it. If after a while the candle 
goes out, it indicates that some of the oxygen in the 
air above the water has been converted into water 
and carbon dioxide. 







FIG. 15 — experiment WITH OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE IN 
THE AIR 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 63 

Withdraw the caiulle and cork l)y means of a 
string which must be attached to the cork before the 
jar is inverted over it. Make a hole through an- 
other piece of cork and slip the stalk of a green leaf 
through it. Lift the bottom of the inverted jar 
nearly to the surface of the water and introduce 
the leaf under the jar, using care so as not to admit 
any air. Remove the vessel containing the jar and 
water to a place in the sunshine. Leave in the sun 
for two days, and remove the leaf. Carefully lift 
the jar slightly above the surface of the water and 
introduce the lighted candle as before. If the can- 
dle does not immediately go out, it is a proof that 
some of the carbon dioxide has been decomposed, 
thus liberating some of the oxygen which supports 
combustion. 



EXERCISE 40 

ANNUAL RINGS OF TREES 
time: spring term 

Object: To study the formation of rings in trees. 

Material needed: Knife, piece of fin, zvax. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Examine the end of a log which has been 
smoothly cut in two. Count from the center out- 
ward in three directions. Do you find the same 
number of rings in each count? Can you trace each 
ring all the way around the log? Find a knot on a 
small log or a large limb ; saw the log in two at the 
knot. Can you trace the rings all the way around? 
Where does the knot originate ? Are knots ever 
beneficial in lumber? Suppose the growth of trees 
is almost checked by a drouth during the summer 
and later the coming of rains causes them to begin 
growth again, would there be two rings formed that 
season? What would be the efifect upon the rings 
if the leaves are destroyed by insects and new leaves 
are put forth during the summer? Can we always 
tell the age of trees by the annual rings? 

2. Select a stem i inch in diameter and cut 
through the bark three quarters the way around ; pull 
each end of the severed bark from the wood for the 
distance of i inch. Carefully lift the unsevered bark 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



65 



from the wood and under it place a thin piece of 
tin, 2 inches wide, and long enough to reach com- 
pletely around the 
stem. When the tin is 
in place, put the bark 
down over it, tie firmly 
and cover with grafting 
wax so as to exclude 
the air. After 40 days 
the twine may be re- 
moved. In December 
cut away the bark cov- 
ering the tin. Do you 
find any wood between 
the tin and the bark ? 
3. Make a list of plants which form annual rings. 
Is there any relation between those plants form- 
ing annual rings and either class of plants in Exer- 
cise 19? 




FIG. 16 
CROSS-SECTION OF HARDWOOD LOG 



EXERCISE 41 

GROWTH OF STEMS 
time: late in the spring 
Object: To learn the manner in which stems grow. 

Materia! needed: Apple brancJi, pots for growing twin- 
ing plants. 

DIRECTIONS 

I. Take from an apple tree a limb having- several 
branches, and find the ring-s which show the annual 
growths. These rings are clusters of bud scale 
scars formed by the terminal bud. What is the 
object of the terminal bud? Suppose you plant 
a tree having its fork 3 feet from the ground, 
how high will the fork be in 10 years? Which 
way do stems grow — b}' a stretching process 
or by the addition of material at the end? 

2. Make a study of twining stems and ob- 

ser\e that some turn clockwise, while others 

turn counter-ck^kwise. Grow a number of 

twining plants in pots ; use sticks for support. 

1'urn one pot over on its side so the plant will 

be in a horizontal position. Does this affect 

the twining? Use supports of different sizes 

and note the effect. Place a glass rod in one 

pot for a support, and observe whether a plant 

j,,j^, J- can twine as well on a smooth support as on 

BUDS a rough one. Place one plant in the dark and 

p^j^^jj observe wdiether light affects the twining. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



67 



3. Make a drawing- of an (Kik which you have seen 
growing' in a forest ; the same of one which has been 
growing in an open fickl for a long time. If you note 
a difference in form, how do you account for it? Is 
there such a thing as natural pruning? Would you 
top a timber tree? 




FIG. 18 — TWINING stems: MORNING-GLORY (lEFT) ; HOI' (RIGHT) 



68 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

4. Select a young brier shoot or some rapidly 
growing plant ; make a mark a few inches from 
the tip early in the morning, measure late in the 
afternoon, and note 4he growth during the day ; 
find the growth during the night. Is the growth 
more rapid during the daytime or the night? 



EXERCISE 42 

FORlAIS OF TREES 
time: fall or spring term 

Object: To study the two forms of trees. 

Material needed: Paper and pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

I. vStiidy the forms of trees in Fig. 19. Trees 
whose main stems are carried on in a direct line 
through their whole growth are called excurrent. 
This form is due to the development year after year 




FIG. ig — FORMS OF TREES. DIAGRAM OF SPRUCE (eXCURRENT) AT 

left; and peach (deliquescent) at right 



70 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

of a terminal bud. The main shaft is never con- 
founded with the branches which proceed from it. 
Pines and firs arc good examples of this form. 

Those trees in which the terminal bud fails to 
take the lead regularly and whose trunks are lost 
in their branches are called deliquescent. The 
American elm is a good example of this type. 

2. Make a list of each type of trees. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Which type is cut for lumber? 

2. To which form do most of our fruit trees be- 
long? 

3. Which type is best for shade trees? 



EXERCISE 43 

PARTS OF A FLOWER 
time: when flowers can ce obtained 

Object: To learn all the parts of a flower. 
Material needed: Floivers. 

DIRECTIONS 

Take for study a plnm, peach, or apple blossom. 
Remove the calyx or whorl of green leaves at the 
base of the flower. How many of these leaves did 
you remove? Each of these leaves is called a sepal. 




FIG. 20 — cross-section OF CHERRY FLOWER : a, SEPAL ; b, 
STAMEN ; C, PISTIL 



72 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



There is a whorl of colored leaves just above the 
calyx ; call this the corolla, and each separate leaf 
a petal. 

Look just inside the petals for a number of 
thread-like parts with a knob at the top; these are 
the stamens. Now ex- 
amine one stamen 
closely (Fig. 21). The 
knob at the end is the 
anther, which bears the 
pollen. Open one of the 
anthers and observe 
the small yellow grains 
of pollen. The stalk of 
the stamen is the fila- 
ment. 

In the center of the 
flower is a stalk with an 
enlarged base. This is 
the pistil. Let us study 
the pistil separately 
(Fig. 22). You will observe it is made up of 
three parts : the enlargement at the top is the stigma, 
which receives the pollen from the anthers ; the 
middle portion is the style ; and the base is the ovary. 

Study a number of flowers of difTerent kinds with 
reference to the number of parts they contain, and 
tabulate your results as follows : 




FIG. 21 — TYPICAL STAMENS : 

a, anther; b, showing mode 
OF attachment; c, filament 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



73 



Name of Flower No. Sepals No. Petals No. Stamens No. I'istils 




a 




d 



kig. 22 — various forms of pistils: a, cherry; h, wild 

geranium; c, st. john's-wort (compound pistil); 

d, ST. john's-wort 



EXERCISE 44 

USES OF THE PARTS OF A FLOWER 
time: when flowers are blooming 

Object: To learn the uses of the parts of a flower. 

Material needed: Flowers in yard or Held. 

i DIRECTIONS 

I. 'To find the use of the calyx: For this experi- 
ment select large flowers, such as poppy, rose, etc. 
Begin when the buds are small and remove the 
calyx, taking care not to injure other parts of the 
flower. Treat about half a dozen buds and label 
them. Label some untreated buds to serve as a 
control. 

llow do the treated flowers develop? 

Since the calyx is green, does it perform the func- 
tion of a true leaf? 

2. To find the use of the corolla: Cut away the 
corollas of flowers frequented by insects, and observe 
whether the insects cease their visits. Notice that 
small flowers are usually grouped in clusters; does 
this help to attract insects? h'ind some flowers 
with bright, showy colors, and watch for visits by 
insects. Are they frequent? 

3. To find the use of stamens and pistils: 
Stamens of the corn plant are borne on the tassels, 
and the pistils arc the silks, l-'ind an isolated stalk 



lUTRAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 75 

somewhere and remove the tassel just as it appears; 
examine when the silk is dead. Are there any 
kernels!^ Suppose you find a few scattered kernels 
on the cob, what does this prove? Tie a paper bag 
over an ear before the silk appears, so as to exclude 
all pollen, and examine later. What effects do you 
notice on the silks and the kernels? 



EXERCISE 45 

FURTHER STUDY OF FLOWERS IN THEIR 
RELATION TO INSECTS 

time: WMKN Kl.OWKKS ARE lil.OOMINC. 

Object: To discover the part insects play in plant life. 

Material iwcdi'd: J 'lowers in the Held. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. SUuly the llowcr of the wheat plant. Has it 
the same kinds of parts as other llcnvers? Are these 
llowers \isitiMl hy inseels? \\ ho ean find just the 
hour in whieh the wheat tlovver opens? 

2. l^escrihe tlie llowers of ])ines, oaks, and net- 
tles. \\ hy do tliey produce an ahinulanee of pollen? 
Does corn produce more or less pollen relati\ely 
than wheat, and wliy? 

.V Are the llowers of t^rape and X'ir^inia creeper 
visited hy insects? Are the llowers conspicuous? 
Do they have an attractive odor? Draw some con- 
clusions from these ol)ser\ations. 

4. C'oUect i?e\'eral kinds of lU)wers and endeavor 
to find the nectar, or honey. In what part of the 
ilower do v(M1 lind tlu> nectar?' \)o all llowers ha\e 
nectar? I)t)es the nectar henelit the llower? 



KDKAL SCHOOL ACiKICIJLTIJRR 'J'J 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why arc the flowers hlooniinj^ late in the fall 
usually (lull in color? 

2. Why (Iocs the honey-bee visit white clover, and 
the bumble bee red cUwer? 

3. Would it be well to use the first cuttini^ iA 
clf^vcr f(jr seed? 



EXERCISE 46 

PERFECT AND IxAIPERFECT STRAWBERRY 
BLOSSOMS 

time: when strawberries are in bloom 

Object: To learn how to distinguish between perfect 
and imperfect blossoms, and what variety will produce 
fruit without the aid of another variety. 

Material needed : Strazeberry blossoms, seed catalogue. 

DIRECTIONS 

Collect some strawberry blossoms for study. Try 
to find both perfect and imperfect flowers. The per- 
fect flowers bear both pistils and stamens ; the pis- 
tils are grouped in the center of the flower, while 
the stamens are located around these at the base 
of the petals. The pistils are pointed, but the 
stamens have a knol) on top. The imperfect flowers 
bear pistils only, and cannot produce fruit unless 
they are planted near a variety which has perfect 
flowers. 

It would be safe to set out a variety bearing im- 
perfect flowers, pro\'ided you set the third or fourth 
row each time with some variety bearing perfect 
flowers. 

Suppose you wish to know what varieties are 
perfect or imperfect, when getting' ready to order 
plants. Look in the catalogue where the varieties 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



79 



are described, and you will see the letters "P" and 
"S." "P" means the variety has imperfect flowers; 




FIG. 23 — STRAWBERRY BLOSSOMS: 0, PERFECT OR STAMINATE; 
b, IMPERFECT OR PISTILLATE 

pistils but no stamens. "S" means staminate ; the 
variety bears perfect fiowers. 



EXERCISE 47 

ROSE CUTTINGS 

time: fall term, just before frost 

Object: To learn how to make rose cuttings, and have 
rose bushes for the home or school grounds. 

Material needed: Knife, rose cuttings, spade, iviiidozv 
pane. 

DIRECTIONS 

I. Take a number of cuttings from rose bushes, 
using stems of one year's growth. Cut the stems 
into pieces of about 6 inches long, and remove at 
least half the leaves on each cutting. Make a slant- 
ing cut, y2 inch long, at the 
base of each, so there will be 
more surface for the roots to 
form. 

2. The size of the excava- 
tion for these cuttings will 
depend upon the number to 
be started, and the size of 
the glass with which it must 
be covered. Suppose the 
glass is I2xi6 inches, then 
dig the hole just large 
enough to be barely covered 
by the glass. Let the hole 
be i8 inches deep. Put into 
ROSE CUTTING TAKING root ^li^ ^lols a layer of soil, 6 




RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 8l 

inches deep ; over this put a layer of 5 inches of 
sand. 

3. Set the cutting* 3 inches deep in the sand, and 
press the sand firmly about them. Put the glass in 
place, press down firmly and cover the edges of the 
glass with soil so as to exclude the air. Make 
a small trench around it to turn the water away. 

4, Why do florists keep bulbs, after potting them, 
the cuttings and pot them, or set them in the soil. 



EXERCISE 48 



LIGHT AND GERMINATION 



time: spring term 

Object: To determine whether light affects germination. 

Material needed: Gerniinatioii boxes or plates of sand, 
corn. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Take two germination boxes, two flower pots, 
or two plates of sand. In each plant loo kernels of 
corn ; place tips downward. 

2. Place one box in the dark ; one in the li^"ht. 
Let the temperature be as nearly alike as possible. 
Examine daily and record your results as follows : 



- 


=1 




^1 






=1 




In light 

In dark 

















QUESTIONS 

1. Does light affect germination? 

2. Name all the conditions for germination. 

3. We have dormant buds. Are there dormant 
seeds? 

4. Why do florists keep bulbs, after potting them, 
in the dark for several weeks before bringing them 
into the light? 



EXERCISE 49 

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOILS AFFECT 
GERMINATION 

time: during growing weather 

Object: To determine the effect of soils upon germina- 
tion, and to observe the effect of working soils when too 
wet. 

Material needed: Three plates, clay soil, humus, sand, 
seeds. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Fill a plate with some clay soil ; apply water, 
and puddle. Attempt to do this with a plate con- 
taining humus and another containing sand. What 
differences do you see? 

2. Plant the same number of seeds in each plate 
and notice the results. 

3. Add sand to the clay and attempt to puddle; 
plant seeds and note the results. These experi- 
ments illustrate why soils should not be worked 
when too wet. 



EXERCISE 50 

AGE AFFECTS GERMINATION 

time: wiiknkvf.u convenient 

Object: To determine whether old seed should be 
planted. 

Material needed: Geruiimition boxes, old seeds. 

DIRECTIONS 

Let the pupils bring- some very old seeds of dif- 
ferent kinds from their homes. Make germination 
tests and compare with a germination test of new 
seed. Study table given below : 

NUMBER OF YEARS THAT SEEDS RETAIN THEIR POWER TO 
GERMINATE 



I Year 


2 Years 


3 Years 


4 Years 


5 Years 


6 Years 


lo Years 


Chervil 
Sea Kale 


Soy Bean 
Mop 
Corn 
Onion 


I.eek 

Parsley 

Pea 

Rhubarb 

Strawl)erry 


Carrot 
Lentils 
Mustard 
Tomato 


Muskmelon 

Kale 

Asparagus 

Cabbage 

Lettuce 

Turnip 

Spi.iach 


Bean 

Eggplant 

Watermelon 

Pumpkin 

Squash 


Cucumber 
Wheat 




Oats 
Flax 
Buckwheat 






Barley 































EXERCISE 51 

GERMINATHJN TEST OF SEEDS 
time; kaij, ok si'ring term 

Object: To find the percentage of germination of vari- 
ous seeds, and make a comparison with the germination 
"standards." 

Material needed: Genninalion boxes, variety of seeds. 



DIRECTIONS 

1. Make a germination test of different seeds, and 
place the percentage of germination in the blank 
column in the table below, so that a comparison can 
be made with the standards, which are also given 
in the same table. 

2. For small seeds take sample with spoon here 
and there through the mass and mix thoroughly. 
In testing large seeds, use lOo ; small seeds, 200 to 
300. 

3. Allow from 10 to 20 days for the germination 
of grass seed ; and from 2 to 7 for cereals, clovers, 
])eas, and vetches. The best temperature is from 
65° to 75^ 

GERMINATION TABI.K 



Name of Seeds 



Beans 

Corn 

Alsike clover. . 
Orchard grass. 

Sunflower 

Tobacco 

liiickwhcat. . . . 
Red clover.... 
Millet 



Standard 



^Germ. 



Name of Seed 



Oats 

Peas 

Sorghum 

'I'urnip 

White clover. . 
Ky. blue grass. 

Pumpkin 

Timothy 

Wheat 



Standard 



95 

90 

'JS 
8S 
Sf 
92 

95 



% Germ. 



86 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

Allowing for seed that will not germinate, how 
much to the acre of the tested seed should be used? 
Let the instructor give the usual rate of seeding an 
acre of the various seeds. 



EXERCISE 52 

DEPTH AFFECTS GERMINATION 

time: whenever convenient 

Object: To show the effect of depth of planting upon 
germination and stand of crop. 

Material needed: Box and seeds. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Fill a box 8 inches deep, and 12 or more inches 
square, with good soil. Mark off rows in which to 
plant the seed. In the first row plant 12 seeds, i 
inch deep; in the second row, 12 seeds, 2 inches 
deep ; in the third row, 12 seeds, 4 inches deep ; in 
the fourth row, 12 seeds, 6 inches deep. 

2. Use large, medium, and small seeds and keep 
results in table below. 



Kind of Seeds 




-0 

H 


=1 


=1 


^1 
it 


^1 


=1 


>> 

a rt 

= Q 

2 




Corn 




















Wheat 




Mustard 





QUESTIONS 

1. How does depth of planting affect germination? 

2. Is there any relation between the depth of 
planting and the size of seeds? 

3. Can the farmer always regulate the depth of 
planting? 

4. How deep should corn be planted? Name 
some conditions which might cause us to vary the 
depth of planting. 



EXERCISE 53 

CARBON DIOXIDE FORMED BY GERMINATING 
SEEDS 

time: whenever convenient 

Object: To determine whether the germinating seeds 
give back anything into the atmosphere. 

Material needed: Glass jar, com, lime ivatcr, two tum- 
blers, glass tube. 

DIRECTIONS 

Fill a fruit jar one-third full of sprouting' corn and 
place in it a small glass filled with lime water. Place 
another glass of lime water in a second jar and set 
beside the first. Cover both jars tightly. Leave 
for several hours and observe the difference in the 
appearance of the li([uid in the two glasses. 

Breathe into another glass of fresh lime water and 
note any change in its appearance. It w^ould be 
well to use a quill for this purpose. 

Lime water may l)e ])repared by stirring a small 
amount of fresh lime in clear water. Let stand until 
all the undissolved lime has settled to the bottom 
of the vessel, then pour off the clear liquid. 

Facts. — In the two cases above, the carbon dio.xide 
from the germinating seed and from the lungs unites 
with the calcium in the water, thus forming calcium 
carbonate, which gives the water its milky appear- 
ance. Ordinary limestone is calcium carbonate, and 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 89 

when we burn it in making lime, wc simply drive 
off the carbon dioxide into the air. Animals in 
breathing give off carbon dioxide, while plants take 
it in through their leaves and use the carbon in the 
formation of starch. Carbon dioxide is often called 
carbonic acid gas. 



EXERCISE 54 

THE RELATIVE VALUE OF LARGE AND SMALL 
SEED 

time: during growing weather 

Object: To find whether large or small seed should be 
planted. 

Material needed: Germination boxes, large and small 
seeds. 

DIRECTIONS 

Fill two flower pots or two boxes with rich soil. 
Plant 25 lar<^e seeds in one, and 25 small seeds in 
the other. Note any variation in the per cent, of 
^germination. Examine from time to time, and 
record any differences you may observe. Be sure 
to have the two lots under like conditions. When 
watering', always apply the ^ame amount of water 
to each lot. At the end of three weeks make a record 
of the height of plants, size of stems, number of 
leaves, etc. 

QUESTIONS 

I. Does it make any difTerence in the health and 
vigor of a plant wdiether it is grown from a large 
and well developed seed or from a weak and puny 
one? 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 9I 

2. Would you consider a farmer wise who mar- 
kets all his best grain and keeps only the inferior 
for seed? 

3. What would be the ultimate result of repeated 
plantings made from the worst seed? Of repeated 
plantings of the best and most vigorous? 



EXERCISE 55 

THE EFFECT OF FREEZING UPON THE GER- 
MINATION OF SEEDS 

time: during freezing weather 

Object: To determine whether moist or dry seeds are 
injured most by freezing. 

Material needed: Geriiii)iation box, seeds. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Soak two dozen seeds in water for two hours; 
remove from water, and when the surface of the 
seeds is dry, place one dozen out of doors for 24 
hours, so that they may freeze.* Keep the other 
dozen indoors. 

2. Soak another two dozen seeds for six hours, 
and treat as above. Germinate the four lots of seed 
separately and note the percentage of germination. 



Treatment 



1. Soaked two hours, exposed. . 

2. Soaked two hours, unexposed . 

3. Soaked six hours, exposed. . . . 

4. Soaked six hours, unexposed. 



Per cent, of Germination 



♦This experiment could be performed during warm weather by placing seeds 
in a water-tight vessel, then packing chips of ice around the vessel. 



EXERCISE 56 

FOOD FOR YOUNG PLANTS 

time: fall or spring term 

Object: To ascertain whether the germinating seed 
acquires new material from its surroundings from the 
beginning. 

Material needed: Germination boxes, seeds, scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Take about half a pound of dry corn, beans or 
peas ; divide into four lots and weigh each lot sep- 
arately- Arrange the lots for germination, using 
care to have them under the same conditions. 

2. After 48 hours remove all the seeds from the 
first lot ; dry, weigh and compare weight with the 
original weight. 

3. When the end of the germ first makes its ap- 
pearance in the second lot, remove, dry thoroughly 
and weigh. Compare weight with original weight. 

4. Later, as the seeds sprout in the third lot, dry, 
and weigh as before. 

5. Wait until the first leaves appear in the fourth 
lot, dry and weigh. 

QUESTIONS 

I. At what stage is the weight permanently in- 
creased ? 



94 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

2. From what source does the plant obtain its first 
food ? 

3. What is tlie per cent, of increase in weight in 
each stage? 

4. When does the plant first begin to take food 
from the soil? From the air? 



EXERCISE 57 

TYPES OF SOIL 
time: fall or spring term 

Object: To learn the different types of soils. 

Material needed: field zvork. 

DIRECTIONS 

Study the definitions of the types given below and 
go into the fields and collect small samples of each 
type. 

1. Sandy soils contain large amounts of sand. 

2. Clay soils include all those containing large 
amounts of clay, and may be known by their sticky 
character. A mixture of sand and clay forms loam. 

3. Sandy loams contain considerably more sand 
than clay. 

4. Clay loams contain considerably more clay 
than sand. 

5. Humus soils contain large amounts of decaying 
organic matter. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Which type of soil is the commonest in your 
locality? 

2. Name some crops specially adapted to each 
class. 

3. What type should you prefer to cultivate? 
Why ? 



EXERCISE 58 

SAND, SILT, AND CLAY 
time: fall or spring term 

Object: To separate the sand, silt, and clay in soils. 

Material needed: Three fruit jars, clay soil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Fill a fruit jar three-fourths full of water and 
place in the water about two tablespoonfuls of pul- 
verized soil. Replace the cover and shake vigor- 
ousl}^ for several minutes. Let stand for a minute, 
and pour the muddy water into a second jar. The 
sediment remaining- in the first jar is composed al- 
most entirely of sand. Examine it carefully. Does 
it look more like sand than the original soil? 

When the second jar has been standing five min- 
utes, pour off the muddy water again into a third 
jar. Add more water to the sediment in the second 
jar, shake vigorously and let stand five minutes, 
then pour ofif the water as before. The sediment 
now remaining is largely silt, whose particles are 
finer than sand. 

Let the water in the third jar stand two hours 
or longer, then pour off the water. Now you have 
clay remaining. Note how fine the particles are. 

Facts. — It takes 23,000 grains of fine clay or 23 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 97 

grains of fine gravel to span i inch. There are about 
327,000 grains of coarse sand in a pound of earth, 
and 100 times as many grains of very fine sand. 
Soils that have the largest number of small soil 
grains generally possess the largest pore space. 



EXERCISE 59 

ACIDITY OF SOILS 

time: string term 

Object: To show whether soils are acid, alkaline, or 
neutral. 

Material needed: Litmus paper, vinegar, soil. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Dip a piece of blue litmus ])aper in vinegar and' 
note the change of color. Moisten a piece of red lit- 
mus paper and press against some ashes and observe 
the color change. Dip both red and blue litmus 
paper in fresh water, and what is the result? 

Substances that turn blue litmus paper red are 
acid. 

Substances that turn red litnuis paper blue are 
alkaline. 

Substances that do not change the color of cither 
are neutral. 

2. Moisten some ordinary soil and test with litmus 
paper. If the color does not change, it is neutral. 

Facts. — Soils should be neutral or slightly alka- 
line. Turning under large crops of green material 
has a tendency to make soils acid. Acid soils may be 
neutralized by the application of lime. 



EXERCISE 60 

EFFECT OF ROLLING AND EXCESSIVE EVAP- 
ORATION ON SOIL TEMPERATURE 

time: spring term 

Object: To determine the effect of rolling and rapid 
evaporation on the temperature of the soil. 

Material needed: Bucket, roller, thermometer. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. For this exercise select three small plots in a 
cultivated field, free from vegetation. Leave the 
first plot untreated; apply water to the second until 
it is thoroughly saturated ; roll the third plot. 

2. Record the temperature for four days and tab- 
ulate the data as in Exercise 6i. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Which of the three plots has the highest tem- 
perature for the different depths? 

2. Did rolling affect the temperature of the soil? 

3. Does rolling in any way affect the evaporation 
from the rolled surface? 

4. How many farmers in your community use a 
roller? For what purpose do they use it? 



EXERCISE 61 

CULTIVATrON AFFECTS THE TEMPERATURE 
OF THE SOIL 

time: APRIL OR MAY 

Object: To show that deep cultivation, under most con- 
ditions, renders the soil cooler, and shallow cultivation 
warmer, than the uncultivated soil. 

Material needed: Tlieruiuiiicter, hoe or rake. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Prepare three adjoiniiiq- plots of ground; leave 
the first uneiiltixated ; cultivate the second to a 
depth oi lYi inches, and the third to a depth of 4 
inches. 

2. Take the temperature of each |)lot i]/>, 3, and 6 
inches below the surface ; take air tenii)erature at the 
same time; repeat the readings for three days and 
tabulate the data as follows : 



u 


3 






Plot No. I 


Plot No. 2 


Plot No. 3 


Q 


1.5 ill- 


3 in. 


6 in. 


i.S ill. 


3 in. 


6 in. 


1.5 ill. 


3 ill. 


6 in . 



























EXERCISE 62 

INFLUENCE OF COLOR ON SOIL TEMPERATURE 

time: Al'RIL OR MAY 

Object: To learn whether the color of soils affects soil 
temperature. 

Material needed: Hoe, soot or pozvdercd charcoal, lime, 
therinoineter. 

DIRECTIONS 

Select tlirce cultivated ])l()ts, free from vegetation; 
leave the first untreated ; a]:»ply soot, charcoal, or 
some black material to the second until the surface 
is thorouj^-hly blackened ; cover the third plot with 
a drcssin<^ of lime. I'he plots need not be over 
3 or 4 feet scjuare. Take hourly readings for lo 
hours, both on a clear and on a cloudy day, and tab- 
ulate the data as in Exercise 6i. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How do the plots vary in temperature on a 
clear day? On a cloudy day? 

2. To what is the color of the soils due? 

3. Will organic matter in the soil affect its tem- 
perature ? 



EXERCISE 63 

KINDS OF MOISTURE IN THE SOIL 
time: fall or spring term 

Object: To learn the three kinds of moisture in the soil. 

Material needed: Flozver pot, soil, pan, scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Nearly fill a flower pot with soil and apply 
water slowly until it trickles through the pot. Set 
the pot in a pan so as to catch the water that passes 
through it. 

This water passes through by the force of gravity 
and is called gravitational or free water. 

2. When the water ceases to drip from the pot, 
transfer the soil to a wide, previously weighed pan; 
weigh and spread out thinly. Leave for several days 
where it will not be molested. When you think the 
soil is "air-dry" weigh again ; the loss in weight 
represents the weight of the second kind of mois- 
ture. This is called capillary moisture. 

Capillary moisture is held in the capillary spaces 
or pores of the soil and is not influenced by gravity, 
but may move in any direction, usually upward, or 
toward the drier soil. 

3. The "air-dry" soil above contains the third 
kind of moisture. This we call hygroscopic mois- 
ture. It consists of a very thin film of moisture sur- 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE IO3 

rounding each soil grain. It is not free to move 
about like capillary moisture, and can be removed 
only by heating the soil to the boiling point of water 
(212° F.), when it passes off as steam. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What becomes of the water which falls upon 
the ground? 

2. Can the farmer control the three kinds of mois- 
ture? 

3. \Vhich kind would be affected by deep plow- 
ing? 



EXERCISE 64 

SOIL WATER HOLDS PLANT FOOD 

timp:: whenevkk convkniknt 

Object: To show that well water holds plant food in 
solution, and rain water does not. 

Material needed: Rain water, zvell ivater, cotton, tzvo 
tumblers, seeds. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. l)oil one lialf i^alloii each of rain water and well 
water until the volume is reduced one half. The 
rain water is boiled to drive off the gases absorbed 
from the air, and the well water to make stronger 
the mineral matter which it contains. 

2. l*our a ])art of the rain water in a glass or a 
small, wide-mouthed bottle. Place upon the water 
a thin layer of cotton, and upon the cotton place six 
seeds which have already been germinated. Do like- 
wise with the well water. Place in the light in a 
warm room. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Which shows the most vigorous growth? 

2. Why is there no plant food in the rain water? 

3. In what form do plants use their food? 

4. Why shotdd the water in the bottles l)e 
changed cverv few davs? 



EXERCISE 65 

THE KFFFXT OF A MULCH IN PREVENTING THE 
LOSS OF MOISTURE I',Y EVAPORATION 

time: during growing weathkr 

Object: To determine whether a mulch prevents the 
loss of moisture from the soil by checking evaporation. 

Material needed: Tivo boxes, seeds, potatoes, straiv or 
leaves, hoe. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Fill two flower pots, or two boxes of equal size, 
with rich soil and j)lant seeds in earth. Saturate 
each ])ot witii water and cover the soil in one pot 
with a layer of fine leaves, or other ort^anic matter. 
When the youn.j^ i)lants come up, thin out to an 
e(|Mal number. Kec]) the two pots under like con- 
ditions of temperature, but do not water either pot. 
Which ])ot keeps the plants in a j^rowinj:^ condition 
longer? 

2. Repeat this experiment under field conditions. 
Plant two small plots of equal fertility in potatoes ; 
cover one with a mulch of wheat straw and cultivate 
the other one in the usual way. Which produces 
the better yield? In case there is a wet season, 
would you expect much difference in the yield of the 
two plots? 



EXERCISE 66 

AWi IN SOILS 
time: may or june 

Object: To observe how plants suffer for want of air. 

Material needed : Tii'o /lower [>ots, seeds. 

DIRECTIONS 

ImII two llowcr pots with rich soil and phint seeds 
ill racli ; w hoii the phints arc 3 inches hij^h, keep the 
S(»il in one soaked with water all the time and ap])ly 
water to the oilier ])ot only as it is needed. In a 
few days ohserxe carefnlly the dilTerence in the ap- 
pearance of the two plants. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Which plant i^rows the faster? 
J. W hat dilVerciuH' do noii ohserxe in the color 
of the two plants 'f 

3. Do you think there is an\' dilTerence in the teni- 
l)erature of the two pots? 

4. How does water affect the amount of air in 
the soil? 

5. Why are nndi-ained fields unprofitable? 



EXERCISE 67 

WATER CAPACITY OF SOILS 
time: whenever convenient 

Object: To determine the water capacity of soils. 

Material needed: Three lamp ehiiiineys, cheese cloth, 
scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

Tic a piece of cheese cloth over the large end of 
each of three lamp chimneys, and weigh each sep- 
arately. Place samples of clay, loam, and sand near 
the stove for 24 hours or until they are dry. Fill 
one chimney with clay, one with loam, and one with 
sand ; hold over a vessel and saturate the contents 
of the chimneys with water. Let stand until the 
water ceases to drip, then weigh and tabulate the 
data as follows: 



Kind 
of Soil 

C!.iy 

Loam 

Sand 



Weiglit of 
Cliiinney 



Weight of 
Soil 



Weight of 
Water Absorljed 



Per cent, of 
Water Absorbed 



EXERCISE 68 

THE EFFECT OF ORGANIC MATTER AND SAND 
ON BAKING OF CLAY SOILS 

time: fall or si-king term 

Object: To show the degree to which organic matter 
and sand prevent the baking of clay soils. 

Material needed: Five flozver pots or boxes, sand, clay, 
humus. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Secure five one-gallon flower pots or jars, pro- 
vided with drainage outlets ; fill them to within i 
inch of the top as follows : 

No. I— Clay. 

No. 2 — Clay thoroughly nii.xed with 20 per cent, 
of hunuis. 

No. 3 — Clay thoroughly nii.xed with 30 per cent, 
of sand. 

No. 4 — Clay thoroughly mixed with 20 per cent, 
of sand. 

No. 5 — Clay thoroughly mixed with 30 i)cr cent, 
of humus. 

2. Use the same amount of water in each case 
and thoroughly saturate the soil. Place the pots in 
the direct rays of the sun until the soil is baked. 
Note the ease with which the different soils can be 
pulverized by the fingers. 



RURAr, SCHOOL AGRICULTURK IO9 

QUESTIONS 

1. How do sand and luinnis alTfct the soil? 

2. What i)lanls would ha\c the t^rcatcst difficulty 
in coming up in a baked cla}^ soil ? 

3. Can the farmer do anything' to prevent the 
baking of the soil? 



EXERCISE 69 

FIXATION Ul' IM.ANT FOOD BY SOILS 

time: fall ok si-uini; term 

Object: To learn whether soils have the power to "fix" 
plant food. 

Material needed: Lamp eliiiitiiey, cheese clotli, aiiiiiioiia 
li'ater, potash, litiiiits paper. 

DIRECTIONS 

Tie a piece of cheese cloth over one end of a himp 
chimney ; fill the chimney with clay soil or j^arden 
loam, and jiack firmly. Set the chimney in a vessel 
and pour in the top some ammonia water. Do you 
detect any odor of ammonia in the water which has 
passed through the soil? Repeat the experiment 
with coarse sand, and note what residts. 

Repeat the ex])eriment by pourin*;' over the soil 
li(|uid manure and water containing' potash in solu- 
tion. What efifect has the soil on the licpiid? Test 
the potash solution with litnms paper. How is it 
alCected? 

Facts. — C^ay, which contains alumina and silica 
condiined, lime, maj^nesia, and iron are good fixing 
agents. These fixing agents prevent the loss of 
plant food by leaching. Many farmers make the mis- 
take of applying immediately available ingredients 
of plant food, as nitrate of soda, before the crop is 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE III 

ready to use it. Rock phosphate and bone meal are 
ingredients which may be applied a considerable 
time before plants are ready for their use. We 
should not fail to state that the "fixing" agents men- 
tioned above are inorganic substances, and that 
humus is of equal importance as a "fixing" agent. 

The amount of plant food in the soil depends 
largely upon three things: (i) The kind of rock 
from which the soil is formed ; (2) the kind and 
quantity of plants grown thereon ; (3) and the "fix- 
ing" power of the soil. 



i:xi:rcise to 



COI.I.I'.CI'ION Ol' I'NI'I'.S ()!'■ SOILS 

I'IMl-; SI'NINC IIUM 

Object: To make a collection of ail the types of soil 
in the coinniimily; classify them; study their characteristic 
j;rowth; ami Imd avrIa^;<• price an acre. 

Miilnial ihu-(liul: Idiiiins ly/ws (if soil. 

DIKMOCTIONS 

ll;i\i' f;icli sliuli'iil liiiiiL', lioiii llu- Iioiiic fai'iii as 
iii.iiiN l\ iu"S t)l" soil as III' rail I'iihI, siuli as rla\ , saiul, 
|(iaiii, rla\ hiaiii, saiuU l()aiii, L;ra\t'll\' soil ami Iral 
mold. ( "lussify ami lalmla I r \ oiii' ii'siills as follows: 



Cullr, I,. 



kiiul ,.| S.iil \VIht<- l''..un.l 



Cli.n.i. iciisli. I'liir nl Soil 

I ii.iwlli pel At re 



QUESTIONS 

I. \\'li\ air si>im' soils luoii- \aluaI>K' lliaii olliors? 
J. 1 >o iHM'laiii crops iM'ow luthT on soiiu- soils Ihan 
on oilii IS ? W liN' ? 



FXERCISE 71 

son. VVASIIINC AND ITS I'R F.VF.NTTON 

riMK: KM. I. OK Sri<IN(i ikkm 

Object: To study the causes of soil washinj^ and means 
for its prevention. 

Material ncciicd: I'ufuT and fwiicil. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. ()iitliiic (•( Midil i< ms vvlii( Ii litln iiiiiic the cxlciit 
of soil vv.'isliiii!.;. 

2. ()iilliiic iiic.iiis by wliicli llir vvasliiii}.' ol soils 
maybe prrKciilcd. 

]. Make a lisl ol laniuTs in llic coiiiiiiiiiiil y vviio 
have badly washed fields. Were these fields washed 
diiriiit^ the possession of the present owners? 



EXERCISE 72 

CHEMICAL ELEMENTS FOUND IN PLANTS 
time: whenever convenient 

Object: To learn what elements are found in plants. 

Material needed: Note-book, pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Study the list of elements in the diagram below. 
Notice their grouping. 



malter 



Plant 



f Nitrogenous numer — Proteids 



Voh.tile 
matter 



Noii-nitroKeniiiis 
matter 



r Starch 

I Sugar 
■{ Wood y 

Gum 
Oil 



f C^rlion 
I Hydrogen 
-1 Oxygen 
I Nitrogen 
I, Sulphur 



Carbon 
Hydrogen 



I 

t Oxygen 



f Phosphorus 

I Potassium 
Sodium 
Calcium 

Non-volatile matter (ash) ■( Iron 

Chlorine 
Silicon 
Manganese 
[. Magnesium 



. Moisture j Hydrogen 

( Oxygen 



EXERCISE 73 

HOW TO DISTINGUISH FERTILIZER IN- 
GREDIENTS 

time: fall or spring term 

Object: To learn how to distinguish the different fer- 
tilizer ingredients. 

Material needed: Fertilisers of various kinds. 

DIRECTIONS 

Let the teacher write to the nearest fertilizer com- 
pany for small samples of rock phosphate, acid phos- 
phate, bone meal, muriate of potash, sulphate of 
potash, kainit, dried blood, gypsum, Thomas slag, 
etc. Place them before the class, and let their char- 
acteristics be studied until each ingredient can be 
readily recognized. 

Arrange the substances studied in groups accord- 
ing to the kinds of plant food which they contain. 



Phosphoric Acid 


Nitrogen 


Potash 



























EXERCISE 74 

THE EFFECT OF TOO STRONG FOOD SOLU- 
TIONS IN THE SOIL 

time: whenever convenient during growing weather 

Object: To determine if plants may be injured by strong 
food solutions. 

Material needed: Flou'er pot, seeds, salt solution. 

DIRECTIONS 

I. Select a young- plant which has developed its 
first leaves. Observe its firmness. Place it in a 
5 per cent, salt solution for a few minutes ; remove 
from solution and observe the change in its rigidity. 
How do you account for the change? Immerse the 
voung plant in fresh water for an hour and test 
again. Does it regain its firmness? 




fig. 25 — effect of strong solutions on plant growth : 0, salt 
added; b, salt being w.\shed out; c, plants revived 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE II7 

2. Plant seeds in a small flower pot. When the 
plants are 3 inches high, pour a lo per cent, salt solu- 
tion upon the soil, using care so as not to let the 
solution come in contact with the stem or leaves of 
the plants. After 24 hours note the appearance of 
the plants. Let a small stream of water run upon 
the soil for several hours. Note if any change has 
occurred in the plants' positions. 

Explanation. — Often the plant food in the soil is 
in the form of salts, which, if too strong, cannot be 
taken up by the plants. Strong solutions of salts 
injure plants by drawing water from them. We 
have these conditions in salt marshes, alkali soils, 
and peat bogs. 



EXERCISE 75 

EFFECT OF NITROGEN ON THE GROWTH AND 
COLOR OF PLANTS 

time: during growing weather 

Object: To find the effect o£ nitrogen on the growth 
and color of plants. 

Material needed: Flower pots, seeds, sodium nitrate. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Plant seeds in two llower ]:)ots or boxes, and 
keep in a warm place until they germinate. Exer- 
cise care so as to have the same kind of soil in each 
pot. 

2. Take i ounce of sodium nitrate, calcium nitrate, 
or potassium nitrate and dissolve in i gallon of 
water. Label this "Nitrate solution." 

3. Water one pot with well or spring water, the 
other with the nitrate solution. Watch the growth 
for three or four weeks. Which grows faster? Note 
the difference in color. 



EXERCISE 76 

MIXING FERTILIZERS 

time: whenever convenient 

Object: To learn how to mix fertilizers in definite pro- 
portions. 

Material needed: Paper and pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

The inf]^recHents of plant food in a complete fer- 
tilizer arc phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and potash. We 
often hear of "8-2-2" goods. This means that the 
fertilizer contains 8 per cent, of phosphoric acid, 
2 per cent, of nitrogen, and 2 per cent, of potash. 

Suppose you want to mix at home a fertilizer 
equivalent to the one mentioned above, and wish 
to use acid phosphate, nitrate of soda, and muriate 
of potash. You will find the amounts of each in- 
gredient as follows : 

2,000 X -oS = 160 pounds phosphoric acid. 
2,000 X -02 := 40 ■■ nitrogen. 
2,000 X .02 =: 40 " potash. 

Now, by turning to tables i, 2, and 3 in the Ap- 
pendix, you will find that acid phosphate contains 
16 per cent, of phosphoric acid ; nitrate of soda, 16 
per cent, of nitrogen ; and muriate of potash, 50 per 



I20 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

cent, of i)otash. Then the amount of each ingredi- 
ent is found as follows : 

i6o -^ .16 = 1,000 pounds acid phosphate. 
40-i-.i6= 250 " nitrate of soda. 
40 -J- .50 =: 80 " muriate of potash. 

Total . . . 1,330 pounds. 

2000 — 1330 = 670, the amount of filler or make- 
weight to l)e added to bring it to a ton basis. Fine 
sand or dry dirt, well pulverized, may be used as a 
filler. 



EXERCISE 77 

FERTILIZER PROBLEMS 

time: whenever convenient 

Object: To become familiar with the method of finding 
the amounts of fertilizer ingredients in any combination. 

Material needed: Paper and pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Follow the method used in Exercise 76 and solve 
the following problems : 

1. Work out the amounts of each ingredient in a 
10-2-4 fertilizer, using acid phosphate, nitrate of 
soda, and muriate of potash. 

2. What would be the weight of filler in one ton 
of an 8-2-4 fertilizer, using ground bone, cotton-seed 
meal, and kainit? 

3. With phosphoric acid at 4 cents, nitrogen at 
15 cents, and potash at 5 cents a pound, what would 
a ton of each of the above fertilizers cost? 



EXERCISE 78 

QUESTIONING THE SOIL 
time: fall or spring term 

Object: To find out the needs of land for maximum 
crop production by questioning the soil. 

Material needed: Tape line, stakes, fertilizers, labels. 



DIRECTIONS 

I. Lay out 12 plots for a fertilizer test. Let the 
plots be 2 rods square, and have paths 4 feet wide 
left between them. 

The following diagram shows the arrangement of 
the plots and the amount of fertilizer ingredients for 
each : 



Nitrate of Soda 
150 lbs. per A., 3^^ lbs. per plot 



Acid Phosphate 
240 lbs. per A., 6 lbs. per plot 



Muriate of Potash 
80 lbs., 2 lbs. per plot 



No Fertilizer 



Nitrate of S., 150 lbs., 3^ lbs. per plot 
Acid P., 240 " 6 " " 



Nitrate of S., 150 lbs., 2% lbs. per plot 
Muriate of P., 80 " 2 " " 



No Fertilizer 



Acid Phos., 240 lbs., 6 lbs. per plot 
Muriate of P., 80 " 2 " " 



Nitrate of S., 150 lbs., 3}^ lbs. per plot 
Acid Phos., 240 " 6 " " 
Muriate of P., 80 " 2 " " 



Farmyard Manure 

10 tons 

500 lbs. per plot 



Farmyard Manure 

15 tons 

750 lbs. per plot 



No Fertilizer 



FERTILIZER EXPERIMENTS 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 1 23 

2. Prepare a Ial)el for each i)l()t, showiiiii;' the fer- 
tihzer used and the date of seediii.L;'. Use the form 
given in Exercise 31 for keeping' the records. 

The successful farmer of the future must be an 
experimenter in a small way. 



EXERCISE 79 



HOW CLOVER HELPS THE FARMER 
time: spring tekm 

Object: To learn how clover and other legumes benefit 
the farmer. 

Material needed: Fruit jar, clover seed, nodules from 
roots of legumes. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Fill a fniit jar almost full of moist garden soil, 
and in it plant about 50 seeds of common red clover. 
Screw on the top loosely 
and place the jar in a 
warm place. When the 
plants are well grown, 
pour in enough water to 
moisten the soil thor- 
oughly. Gently pull out 
the plants so as not to in- 
jure the roots and find 
the swellings. Do all the 
plants have swellings on 
their roots? Do they 
vary in size? 

2. Repeat the experi- 
ment with other types 
of soil, and note whether 

.1 • ... FIG. 26 — NODULES ON SOY 

there is any vanatuMi in ^^^^^ ^o^ts 











RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 125 

the number of nodules on the roots of plants grown 
in dififerent soils. 

3. Make a collection of nodules of other plants, as 
alfalfa, peas, beans, and vetches. Do you see any 
variation in the size, form, and number of nodules 
taken from different plants? 

Facts about legumes. — The plants named above 
are legumes, nitrogen gatherers. The swellings on 
the roots of these plants are the homes of minute 
swarms of little beings which are able to change the 
nitrogen of the air into nitrates for the use of plants. 
They not only furnish the plants oh which they live 
nitrates for food, but even more than is needed and in 
this way make the soil fertile. Legumes furnish to 
the 3oil the most expensive fertilizer ingredient. 
Farmers who grow legumes extensively are not com- 
pelled, except in rare cases, to purchase a fertilizer 
containing nitrogen. Many farmers of the South 
supply nitrogen to the soil in the form of cotton-seed 
meal. 



EXERCISE 80 

TESTING SEED CORN 

time: before planting time 

Object: To determine what ears should be used for 
seed. 

Material needed: Germination box, sand, cloth, corn 
ears. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Take a shallow box and partly fill it with sand. 
Let the sand be as fine as can be procured ; it will 
hold moisture longer than coarse sand, thus render- 
ing the conditions more favorable for germination. 
Moisten the sand and stir it up with the fingers so 
the moisture will be uniform. Avoid an excess of 
moisture, for then the corn would rot. Have it so 
that no water will run out of the box if it should be 
tilted. Over the sand place a cloth which has been 
checked by lines 2 inches apart. Let each square 
be numbered i, 2, 3. etc., to correspond with the ears, 
which are numbered also. 

2. Now take each ear separately, and remove four 
kernels, taking them from different parts of the ear. 
Take one from the butt, one from the tip and two 
from the middle ; but the middle ones should not be 
taken together. Turn the ear each time so as not to 
get them in a straight line. Place the kernels from 
the different ears in their numbered squares and 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE I27 

cover with a moist cloth to avoid excessive evapora- 
tion. Over the cloth place a layer of moist sand. 
If the sand becomes too dry, sprinkle warm water 
over it until it is thoroughly moistened ; but remem- 
ber the water must be warm, not hot. 

Keep the box at a temperature of about 75° F., 
and examine it daily. Remove every kernel that 
sprouts and keep count. Be sure to wait until you 
are satisfied no other kernels will sprout. Ears 
whose kernels germinate less than 92 per cent, 
should not be planted. Do not plant ears whose 
kernels show a slow, feeble germination. 



EXERCISE 81 

VARIATION IN INDIVIDUAL EARS 



time: spring and tall terms 

Object: To study and record the variation in individual 
ears. 

Material needed : Spaee in field, ears of corn. 

DIRECTIONS 

Select 12 or more good cars for tliis exercise, and 
plant in the corn field one ear to the row. Have 
the rows numbered and plant by hand so it may all 
be done as nearly alike as possil)le. Let the ground 
be uniform in fertility, drainage, etc., so that differ- 
ences in ])roductiveness in individual cars can be 
noted. Keep a record of the indixidnal rows, and 
tabulate vour data as follows : 



Row No. 



I'lishels 
an Acre 



Per cent, 
of Stand 



No. Broken 
Stalks 



No. narren 
Stalks 



No. Suckers 



EXERCISE 82 

SEED CORN TRANSMITTING CIIARACTICRISTICS 



Sl'KINC; AND l-AI.I, TKK M S 



Object: To determine how far certain characteristics 
will be transmitted by seed corn. 

Material needed: Space in Held, ears of corn. 

DIRECTIONS 

Select one ear eacli of the following' types: lar^e 
col)s, small cobs, tapering' ears, wide s])ace between 
the rows, cylindrical ears, small ears, and large ears. 
Number each ear and plant by hand, one ear to a 
row. I lave the rows nund)ered lo correspond to 
the number of the ear. When tlie corn has matured, 
harvest the rows separately and obserx'e whether 
the row planted with seed from the ear having a large 
cob has a greater percentage of large cobs than the 
other rows. Likewise ol)ser\'e the ])articular char- 
acteristic of each indi\idu;d row. 

What resemblance do the plants and the ears 
bear to the plants which bore the seed and to the 
ears from which the seed was selected? 



EXERCISE 83 

MIOCIIANICAI. SI'l.l'.l I ION ()!'■ COKN 

IIMK: I'AI.I, (IK M'KINC. IKK M 

Object: To study tyjics of corn by mechanical selection. 

Material iict'dcti: .Scales, cars of <(iiii. 

DIKIOCTIONS 

i. Take Innii i lo 5 Imslicls oi axciaj^c licld corn; 
(li\i(|(' iiilo laiLM', inciliniii, ami small cais. ('(tiiiil 
and wc't'li llic cars ol (.•acli li>l ami record as lollovvs: 



Numlirr \Vru;lil lliislirls 



I'rr I riill 
1)V Wriitli. 

I ,;[VK'' c'lrs 

Mciliimi c.irs 

SiIImII (MIS 



2. Usi> ihc same coin and make other divisions 
named lie|( i\v : 

Niiml.i-i IV[- ( fill. Iiy Niimlirr 

I ,(iiin .slim f.irs 

Short slim c.us 

Siiiirt tliicU c.-ir.s 

idc.d (MIS 

Niiiuliri IVr i.rul. liy Nimilirr 

ryliinhiial cars 

'r.iixM'iiiR cars 

Well tilled hiitts 

Well filled tips 



KUKAi, s<ii(H)i, ACKicni.riiui'; 



'.^' 



It slioiild iiitl 1)1- cxixi-tcil llial cacli slndciil woiU 
oiil all tin.' parts of this cxri-fisc. Sliidciils should 
\)v dividc'(I into groups, and allovv('(I to worU oiil 
soMic pail ol llic c'xt'i'fisc in j.;ronps. Il vvonid he well 
to have sonic of the students repeat the exereise 
at Iheir homes, and then make a comparison of the 
results before the whole class. 



EXERCISE 84 

PER CENT. OF CORN AND COB 

time: spring term 

Object: To determine whose corn has the greatest per- 
centage of corn to cob, and to find, if possible, the cause 
of this variation. 

Material needed: Scales, ears of corn. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Have a limited number of boys weigh and 
shell, at their homes, a sack or l)asket of corn. 
Weigh the shelled corn and calculate the ])ercentage 
of corn to cob. This should be from 86 to 87 per 
cent. Note whose corn has the greatest i)ercentage ; 
whose has the least. Can an}' reasons be given for 
this variation ? 

2. Select other students and ha\e them bring to 
the school 10 ears each of the following types : taper- 
ing ears, cylindrical ears, long slim ears, short thick 
ears, ears with well filled tips, ears with well filled 
butts, ears with large cobs, and ears with small 
cobs. Weigh. Shell and find percentage of corn to 
cob, and record the results as follows : 



EXERCISE 85 

TYPES OF SEED CORN 

time: fall or spring term 

Object: To learn the characteristics of good and bad 
ears. 

Material needed: Labels, crib of corn. 

DIRECTIONS 

Study the types of corn in the following cuts and 
select ears from the crib at your home to represent 
all the types shown in this exercise. 

The following table gives the per cent, of ])rotein, 
oil, and ash in the three parts of the kernel : 



Germ 

Floury portinii . 
Horny portion. 



Per cent, of 
Protein 



19.28 
10. 93 



Per cent, of 
Oil 



.34 6 
0.8 



Per cent, of 
Ash 



10. II 

0-53 
0.64 



Total 



63-99 
g.26 
12.61 



134 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 




RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



135 




FIG. 28 — SHAPE OF EARS 
4 — cylindrical; 5 — tapering; 6 — very tapering 



1^6 



RURAL SCHOOL ACUUCULTURE 




> :: 




RURAF. SCHOOL ACRICULTURE 



137 







•^ y^^ i^'^M 




BFwk, -^ -^—'^H 


tv "^^ '^^^^fl 


Hfeb^^jHl 


Hk^ .v^liS 


■^L^yfl 


^■££^^1 


Hk|£9flB| 


^Ko^H 



inc. T,] — VARIOUS HUTTS 
28— well rnuiuled ; 29— moderately rounded ; 30 — shallow rounded 









^E^H 


Bh 


"" '^'^'^■IH^^^H 



KU;. 32 — EAR TIPS 
32— well lilleil; 33 partly filled ; 34— poorly tilled 



T3« 



RURAL RCTTOOr, AORTCULTURR 




o I 



Y- E 





'A i' 



w 2 



RURAi. sfTfOf)!, A(;i<irn[/rnRF. 



139 





> ^ 



y a 



I40 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 




FIG. 37 — SIZE OF COB 
35 — too large ; 36 — proper size ; 37 — too small 



Rl^RAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



141 




FIG. 38 — FORMS OF KERNELS 
Pairs 4 and 15 have the best form 




FIG. 39 — LAR(,i; \,\li SMALL GERMS 



142 



RURAL SCITOOr, AGRICULTURE 




^^^^mmMmm^M(?^^ 




fflf Bn« rrmMuSll^^ 


'^^m^imm 


fmm^^jjj/g^ 





EXERCISE 86 



COMPARISON OF KERNELS OF VARIETIES OF 
CORN 

time: spring term 

Object: To study the variation in the kernels of varie- 
ties of corn. 

Material needed: Tape line, varieties of corn, scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

Study carefully the variation in the kernels of four 
varieties of corn, and tabulate your data as follows: 

VARIATION IN KERNELS 





Names of Varieties 












No. of kernels in i pound 










Average weight of kernel (deci- 
mally) 




Average length of kernels in 
inches 




Average width in inches 




Average thickness in inches 





EXERCISE 87 

COMPARISON OF EART.Y, LATE, AND MEDIUM 
STALKS OF THE SAME VARIETY 

time: when corn is eloweking 

Object: To compare early, late, and medium stalks of 
the same variety. 

Material needed: Corn field, paper tas^s. bai^s, twine. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Label 40 stalks with ])aper ta^'s marked "Early 
stalks,'' just as the tassels begin to appear. When 
you think about one half the tassels have appeared, 
label 40 other stalks; let the labels be marked 
"Medium stalks." Ai^ain when the last tassels are 
appearing-, label 40 stalks with tags marked "Late 
stalks." When the corn is mature, harvest and com- 
pare the yield of each lot. 

2. Repeat the same experiment with the silks. 
Observe closely the degrees of pollination in the dif- 
ferent cases. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Do you find any variation in the yield of early, 
medium and late stalks? 

2. If so, how do you account iov this variation? 

3. What advantage or disadvantage would there 
be in having a variety of corn whose silking and 
tasseling period is short? 

4. Are ears of corn from replanted hills better or 
more poorly filled than those of the main planting? 



EXERCISE 88 

TASSELING AND SILKING PERIOD 

time: when corn is FLOVVERINr, 

Object: To study the range of the tasseling and silking 
period. 

Material needed: Corn field, rule, not e-book. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. For this exercise select a single row of corn ; 
beginning at one end count off lOO hills. Begin the 
exercise just as the first tassel appears. At a fixed 
hour each day pass along the row, and count the 
number of tassels and silks which have appeared. 
Keep record in note-book, also the days which have 
rain or sunshine. Continue your observations until 
there is no longer an increase in the number of silks 
and tassels. 

2. With the chart below as a model, construct a 
graphic chart showing the tasseling and silking 
period. 

Supposed Data: 

Total number of tassels to appear each day : 

I — — 6 — 4 — 15 — 10 — 25 — 16 — 8 — — 5 — 
Total number of silks to appear each day : . 
0—0— 0—3— 5— 3— 5— 23— 40— 28— 16— 5 

Observe that the number of silks or tassels which 
appear each day is represented by the perpendicular 



146 



RURAL SCHOOL ACVRICULTURE 




FIG. 42 — CHART OF CURVF.S SHOWINC. RANGE OF TASSELING AND 
SII K[N(; I'KRIOI) 



line extending; from the base of the chart to the 
curve. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the Icns^th of the tasseliiiL:^ period? 
Silking period ? 

2. Do you think the number of silks or tassels to 
appear daily was influenced in any way? If so, by 
what? 

3. Why is there such variation in the time in 
which silks appear? 

4. Which would be of any advantage to the 
farmer to have, a variety whose silking period is 
short or long? Why? 



FXFRCISF 89 

IM'.Rini) ()!• |M )|.|,lNA'ri()N Ol' CORN 

■I'IMk: wiikn iokn is m,uwki(I nc 

Object: To determine at what period during the day 
pollination is most effective. 

Molcriiil iiccdfil: Corn firlil, rule, iintc haok. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. ('over ;i larijc iiiniihci" <»l' shoots jiisl Ix'foic Mm- 
silks apiMs'ir, a^- in I'.xcrcisc i)\. I icj^iiinin^ with 
4 A.M., (livi'h- lh<- (hiy into ixriofi-, of four hours 
c.'u li as foHovvs : 

1. I'irst period, ,] to T) a.m. 

2. SfCO||(| period, (t to S A.M. 

3. 'I'liird |H I iod, X to 10 a.m. 

4. l''onrtli peiioil, 10 to \j M. 

5. I'"ifth |M I io(|, ij to I I'.M. 
(). .Sixth jMiiod, I to I, I'.M. 

7. Scvi'iitii period, ■; to 5 p.m. 

8. I''ij.(hlh period, 5 to 7 I'..m. 

2. When the silks arc 3 or 4 iiiehes lonj^, remove 
ihe hai^s fioiii 10 ears and h-avc exposed (hirint; the 
first period, tlieii rcphn <■ the haj's ;iiid tie. ("ontintic 
the exposure lhroii,L',hont tiie ciidii periods, hi re- 
moving; oi- replacing the l)aj.(s, tise care so as not to 
sliake the pollen frcjiii the stalks. I.ahel ea(li set 
of exposures, giving date and period. 



I4(S KiiKAi. SCHOOL ACKicin/n'Ki': 

3. When the corn is harvested, ol)serve the 
anionnt of poHinalion of llie ears (hirini;- the differ- 
ent periods. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What period is most favorable for fertilization? 

2. When does the corn llower open? 



EXERCISE 90 

EFFECT OF WIND ON THE POLLINATION OF 
CORN 

TIME : WHEN CORN IS FLOWERING 

Object: To learn how much the wind affects the pollina- 
tion of corn. 

Material needed: Com field, rule, note-book. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Cover two dozen shoots just before the silks 
appear, as in Exercise 91. When the silks are in the 
receptive stage, which can be told by the length, 
select a time during the day when there is a rather 
brisk breeze and expose 12 silks a certain number 
of hours. On another day, when the air is still, ex- 
pose the other set of 12 the same number of hours. 
Replace the ])aper bags in each case and label the 
two sets, giving date, length of exposure, and 
treatment. 

2. When the corn has been harvested note any 
variation in the degree of pollination of the two sets. 



EXF:RCISE 91 

i<i':(i':i''n\ !■; siacI', ( )i'' si i.ks 

TIMI': \VIII:N corn is I'l.dVVh.KINi; 

Object: 'J'o rmd tlic sl.-i{;c in which silks arc ready to 
receive the i)c)llcii. 

MdlrriitI nccilcil: ( Oni I'lchl , ni/t\ nolc-hooL'. 

DIRECTIONS 

I. Tic |);i|)cr li.'ii^s (>\cr u i>v \\\t>rv youtii; shoots 
jnsi Ix'loic the silks .ippcir. /\|>|''>' |"o!1rii lo llir<'i' 
ol tlu' shoots just .IS Ihc first silks iml in .-ippcar- 
,iiuc ; I ir.il ol her sets ol I hrcc in Ihc same way wiu'ii 
the silks arc J, .|, and (> inches lon^;. I,ca\i' the 
lOinlh set lo (la\s alter liic sillss appear heloie ap- 
p!\ ini; the pollen, hnl keep eo\ cfed all this lime. 
The p(>llen slionld he applie(| eail\' in the morning;, 
sa\ helwcen six and eiidil o'eloek. I'hi^ lan he 
done li\ reminim; llie paper haj.; and shaking o\-er 
the silk a tassel whiili is slu'ddinL; its polh'n in 
altnndanee. .Alter this is done, leplaei- the hai; and 
tie as Ixdore. I'lie licaU'd eai's slionld he watehed 
('\('r\' two or lliret' da\s so as lo hiosen the strings 
in cast.' the\' aic inlerlerin!.; with the L^rowini; ear. 
I'.aeh stalk slionld hear a lahel showing; the date 
of pollination and the IciilMIi ol silk when trt-atiMl. 

J. When the eoi ii has niatiire(l, harxi-st llu> 
treated i-ais and ohserv e the decree ol pollination 



uiiuAi. ^.(•||()Ol, Acincdi/niKi'; 



'5' 



ill c.'icli set. I)r;i\v a coiiclusioii as to the rcccpl i vc 
staj^c Mow l'Mi<^- vvcTc the silks in liic iasl set 
|)oliiiia(c(r-' VVIiy <li<l llicy ;Movv to siicli Iciimlll? 
( )l)scrvc' llic position of tlic kernels in eacli set. In 
wllicli set are the butts, lips, and niiijille portions of 
tlic cars hest filled:'' 



EXERCISE 92 

THE EFFECT OF DP:TASSELING CORN UPON 
THE YIELD 

time: when corn is floweking 

Object: To find whether removing the tassels as they 
appear affects the yield. 

Material needed: Corn field, labels, knife. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Select a field of uniform fertility, drainag'e, etc. 
Use from 24 to 50 rows in this exercise and cut out 
the tassels as they appear from every other row. 
Exercise care so as not to cut out any of the blades. 
You ^vill find a wide rant^e in the tasseling period 
which will necessitate i^'oint^ over the rows two or 
three times. Label all the detasseled rows. 

2. W hen the corn is mature, harx'cst the detas- 
seled rows separately and note the yield. Do like- 
wise with the rows not detasseled. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Do _vou find any difference in the yield? 

2. Do you observe any difiference in the deg'ree of 
pollination of the detasseled and undetasseled rows? 

3. Would there be any advantage in detasseling 
weak or barren stalks? 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



153 




EXERCISE 93 

MOISTURE IN CORN AND COB 

time: when corn is harvested 

Object: To find the amount of moisture in corn and 
cob at harvesting time. 

Material needed: Corn ears, scales, pans. 

DIRECTIONS 

Weigh six ears of corn ; shell and weigh the 
grain. Place the grain and cobs separately in two 
bread pans, and dry in a stove until the weight be- 
comes constant. Calculate total moisture in corn 
and cob and record data as follows : 



Weight of 


Weight of 


Weight of 


Weight of 






Corn 


Cobs 


Corn 


Cobs 


Moisture 


Moisture 


before 


before 








in Cobs 


Drying 


Drying 


Drying 


Drying 






• 













EXERCISE 94 

INFLUENCE OF A MISSING HILL UPON THE 
YIELD OF ADJOINING STALKS 

time: when corn is ready for harvesting 

Object: To determine whether a missing stalk affects 
the yield of the stalks adjoining. 

Material needed: Corn field, sacks, scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

Select a field in which the corn has been uni- 
formly planted. Pass through the field hunting for 
missing stalks, and when one is found, harvest the 
ears from the stalks in the same row on each side 
of the missing one. Now step across one row, to 
the right or left, and select a stalk not adjoining 
a missing one ; harvest the ears on the stalks on 
each side of the selected one in the same row. Un- 
derstand there must be only one row between the 
two classes of selections, lest differences in the soil 
affect the yield. Keep each class in separate sacks 
until you have harvested lOO ears of each, or have 
passed over 50 missing hills. Husk and weigh the 
two lots. Does the missing stalk increase or dimin- 
ish the yield of the two adjoining? 

The diagram given below shows what hills to 
harvest. 



156 ri;ral school A(;Ri(Lii/ruRE 



******** 



jr's represent the missing hill. 

♦s reprcseiit the hills. 

Figures are placed under the hills to be harvested. 



EXERCISE 95 

THE EFFECT OF CORN SMUT UPON THE YIELD 



time: FAr.L term 



Object: To find how much corn is affected even when 
smut does not attack the ear. 

Material needed: Cornfield, sacks, scales. 



DIRECTIONS 

Harvest ears whose stalks are affected by smut. 
Discard the ears affected by smut, as we should nat- 
urally expect the yield to be low when the ears have 
smut. Every time an ear is pulled from an aft'ected 
stalk, pull an ear from the nearest stalk regardless 
of size and keep in a separate sack. Weigh the two 
lots separately and note the difference in the yield. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why is smut classed as a parasite? 

2. If it produces no flowers, how does it repro- 
duce ? 

3. What part of the corn plant is usually most 
aft'ected ? 

4. Why does one stage of smut appear as a dark 
mass? 



EXERCISE 96 

EFFECT OF METHOD OF IIy\RVESTING MAIZE 

timk: i'All tekm 

Object: To find how methods of harvesting corn affect 
the yield. 

material needed : Knife, lidn^ls, seales. 

DIRECTIONS 

When fodder is ready for pulliii};-, select a ])art 
of the field where the corn is as nearly uniform 
as possible; select lOO hills for each method of 
treatment and treat as follows: Slri]) the blades 
from the stalk; remove the stalk above the ear; cut 
the whole stalk and shock ; and leave the last loo 
hills untouched. 

Label the four lots. When the corn is ready for 
harvestino^, husk and weigh each lot separately. 
Tabulate results as follows: 



Method of Treatment 

Hl.ulcs stripped 

Topped above the ear 

Stalks cut and shocked 

Left standing, untreated 



Loss or Gain in Pounds 




RTJRAf, SCIIOOI, ACklCUl/riiKI-: 



'50 




2 t 



^ 2 1 

• '^ c 



i6o KUKAi, SCHOOL A(;uicui/riiRE 

QUESTIONS 

1. Which is the best method of harvesting corn? 

2. What method is cf^mmonly used in your com- 
munity ? 

3. Can you see any (HiTerence in the a])pearance 
of the corn under the different methods of treat- 
ment? 



EXERCISE 97 

GLUTEN IN FLOUR 
time: whknkvkk convknient 

Object: To find the gluten in flour. 

Material needed: Muslin ba<^, flour. 

DIRECTIONS 

Moislcn some f)r(liiKiry wheat Hour with water 
and place it in a muslin baj^'. Allow a stream of 
water to flow tlirouirh the bai^ while kneadinj^- with 
the fingers; catch the milky fluid in a vessel. Con- 
tinue the washing^ until the water is almost clear. 
You will have remaininj.^ in the ha^ an elastic sub- 
stance of a creamy color which is called gluten. It 
is the gluten in the flour which makes flough. 
Gluten is also the proteid of the wheat. It forms 
about lo per cent, of the flour, while the starch 
forms about 75 ])er cent. 

The milky fluid that was washed from the ilour 
is the starch. Take a small portion of this and test 
for starch. Add a drop of iodine to it, and if it 
turns to a blue color, you may know that it is starch. 



EXERCISE 98 

RELATION in'.TWKKN IJ'NGTH OF STRAW AND 
YIELD Ol' GRAIN IN WJIEAT 



TIMK: WIlIiN WIIKAT IS RII'E 



Object: To determine whether there is any relation 
between length of straw and yield of grain in wheat. 

Material needed: Wheal field, knife, scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

When wheat is ripe, s^o into the field and harvest 
lOO stalks each of long, medium, and short straw. 
Cut e\'ery straw even with the ground and weigh 
the lots separateh'. 

Thresh the grain with the hands (will take only 
a sliort time), blow out the chaff, weigh the grain 
se])arate]y. and tabulate residts as follows: 



Long straw 
Medium " 
Short 



Weight of 

Straw .Tiid 

Grain 



Weight of 
Straw 



VViight of 
Grain 



Per cent, 
of Straw 



Per cent, 
of Grain 



The same investigations may be carried on with 
rve and barlev. 



EXERCISE 99 

RELATION BETWEEN THE LENGTH OF HEADS 

OF WHEAT AND NUMBER OF STALKS 

AN ACRE 

time: when wheat is ripening 

Object: To determine the relation between the length 
of head of wheat and the number of stalks an acre. 

Material needed: Wheat field, ivire hoops, rule. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Place a wire hoop of known area over the 
heads of wheat, and let it slip down to the f^round. 
The hoop must include every stalk that will stand 
within the hoop without being pressed in or forced. 
Count the numl^er of stalks within the inclosure, 
and find the average length of heads within the 
hooj). This can he done by measuring several heads, 
adding the length and dividing by the number meas- 
ured. 

2. Re])eat this in several parts of the field. Tab- 
ulate results as follows : 



Niiiriber < f 
Trials 


Area of 
Hoop 


Number of 
Stalks 
in Hoop 


Number of 

Stalks 

per Acre 


Length of 
Head 


I . 

2 


' 








4 




6 





Is there any relation between the number of 
stalks an acre and length of head? 



EXERCISE 100 

PREVENTING OAT SMUT 

time: FEIJKUARY OR MARCH 

Object: To show how to prevent oat smut in the suc- 
ceeding crop by treating the seeds with formaldehyde be- 
fore they are sown. 

Material needed: I'ormahiehydc, oats, tzco plots. 

DIRECTIONS 

Purchase at the driiij;- store i ounce of formalde- 
hyde, which will cost about 5 cents. Pour it into 
about 3 gallons of water and stir. Sprinkle this 
pre])aration on the seeds until they are thorout^hly 
saturated ; spread the oats out thinly and let them 
dry. 

Sow e(|nal amounts on two adjcMiiing plots, but 
let one plot he seeded with treated oats, the other 
with untreated oats. 

At harvest time, count the number of smutted 
heads in the treated and the untreated plots. 



EXERCISE 101 

QUALITY OF OATS 

time: fall or string term 

Object: To find who has the best oats in the com- 
munity. 

Material needed: Half-hiishcl measure, oats, scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

Have several pupils weigh out i bushel of oats 
at their homes and bring weights to school. In 
measuring out the oats, draw a straight edge over 
the half-bushel, leaving the grain even with the top. 
Let the pupils tabulate their results as follows: 



Students' 
Names 



Weicht of 
Bushel 



No. Pounds 
Overweiglit 



Per cent. 
Overweight 



Variety 



Each student should copy the data of all the 
others. 



EXERCISE 102 

BOTANICAL STUDY OF THE COTTON PLANT 

time: when cotton is flowering 

Object: To learn some of the botanical characteristics 
of cotton. 

Material needed: Cotton plant. 

DIRECTIONS 

Select a blooming cotton plant, study carefully 
and fill the blanks outlined below : 

Root : Fibrous or tap-rooted ?. , 

Deep or shallow ? 

Stem : Erect or trailing ? Shape of stem 

Color of bark Color of wood 

Leaves : Alternate or opposite ? Shape 

Number of lobes Make drawing showing veins. 

Calyx : Size Shape 

Corolla : Color Shape Size 

Petals: Number Separate or coalescent? 

Stamens and pistils : Number of each 

Make drawings of stamens and pistils. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



167 




EXERCISE 103 

PRC^PORTIONS OV 1)1 I'M' [{Rl-: NT PARTS OF THE 
COTTON PLANT 

time: fall term 

Object: To find the proportion of roots, stems, leaves, 
bolls, etc.. of the cotton plant. 

Materia! luwh'd: Trit cotton [slants, hoc, knife, scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. AA'lion cotton is opening- dig" np lo plants, tak- 
ing care to obtain as nnicli of the root system as pos- 
sible. Separate the roots, stems, leaves, bolls, seed, 
and lint of the lo plants. 

2. Weigh and tabnlate results as follows: 



Parts of the ri,«nt 


Weight 


Per cent. 


Ounces 


Grams 


Roots 

Stems 












Bolls 




Seed 




Lint 




TotaUtcn plants) 








Average (one pLini) 









EXERCISE 104 

COMPARISON OF LARGE, MEDIUM, AND SMALL 
PLANTS 
1 
time: when cotton is ready for picking 

Object: To study the variation in yield and number of 
bolls of plants of different sizes. 

Material needed: Cotton field, scales. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Select 25 i)lants each of lari^-e, medium, and 
small, and count the number of l)()lls in each set. 

2. Pick the lint from each set of 25 plants, weigh, 
and tabulate your results as follows : 



Large.., 
Medium 
Small. .. 



Toi.il Ni), 
of liolls 



Average 
No. Holls 
per Plant 



Total 

Weiyht 

Seed Cotton 



Aver;ige 
Weiglit 
per riant 



No. Plants 
to produce 



QUESTIONS 

1. From which set would you select seed for the 
next year's crop? Why? 

2. Do you see any relation ])et\vecn the yield of 
seed cotton and the number of bolls to the plant? 

3. Is there any relation between the size of the 
bolls and the size of the plant? 



EXERCISE 105 

VARIATION IN NUMBER OF BOLLS TO THE 
PLANT 

time: when the rolls are opening 

Object: To find and represent graphically the variation 
in the number of bolls of cotton per plant. 

Material needed: Cotton field, note-book, rule. 

DIRECTIONS 

Begin at the end of a row and count the number 
of bolls on each of 25 plants, taking them as they 
come in the row. 

Construct a graphic chart showing variation in 
the number of ])olls of the 25 plants which you have 
studied. Use the chart below as a model. 

Number Bolls 
Supposed data: 50 — 22 — 10 — 35 — 48 — 75 — 85 — 100 — 76 — 40 — 
9 — 30 — 40 — 45 — 25 — 66 — 50 — 48 — 20 — 10. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



171 






Phmts 



2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 
FIG. 46 — CHART SHOWING YIELD OF BOLLS 



EXERCISE 106 

AN IDEAL COTTON PLANT 

time: when cotton is ready for picking 

Object: To learn the characteristics of an ideal cotton 
plant, and the use of the score card for cotton. 

Material needed: Colto)i plants, score card. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Study carefully the description of an ideal cot- 
ton plant given below. Let each student bring from 
the home farm that plant that he thinks approaches 
nearest this ideal. 

2. With the use of the score card and directions 
for judging cotton given in the Appendix, determine 
what student has found tlic l)cst plant. 

THE IDEAL COTTON PLANT* 

"If a carefid observer went through any cotton 
field last fall he must haxe noticed st)me very 
inferior plants, a great nian\' fairly good plants, and 
a few which were decidedly superior to these. The 
inferior plants were not all so on account of a lack 
of food nor from improper cultivation ; but rather 
they were inferior because they were built in ac- 
cord with an inferior model. The great number of 
fairly good plants were built in complete accord 

*liy Professor Joluison, Univcisiiy of Georgia. 



RURAL SCHOOL ACRICLH-TURli 



1/3 



vvilli lU'illuT the inferior nor sui)crior models. In 
general form they occupied an intermediate ])osi- 
tion. 'I'lie few superior plants, those bearing large 
numbers of well shaped, large bolls, were built ac- 
cording to a distinct plan which seems to character- 
ize plants of greater vigor and jiroductiveness. 

"In the average field the inferior plants bear only 
a few, generally two or three bolls. The average 
|)lant niay bear as many as 12 to 15 bolls oi fairly 
good size and form, while the few really superior 
plants many mature as many as 00 to 100 large, well 
shaped and filled bolls. 

"Now let us see something in regard to the gen- 
eral characteristics of these more productive ]dan<^s. 




FIG. 47 — AN IDEAL COTTON PLANT 
(Year Book, U. S. Dept. Agriculiuicj 



174 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

"First to be noted is that there is no one variety 
possessing- all of the good plants, neither does any 
single variety contain all the inferior ones. In each 
and every variety there are some good plants so far 
as that particular varietv goes ; there are also many 
poor individuals. There are both the desirable and 
undesirable in each and ever}' variety. 

"The good or more producti^'e plants in any vari- 
ety will be found to have certain individual and 
group characteristics, which to some extent may 
be those of the variety type. 

"The best plants are of medium height, with stalks 
rather thick at the base, tapering gradually, and 
uniform from base to apex, with good, strong, well 
defined and closely set joints. The lower three or 
four branches should be rather close to the ground, 
short-jointed, re-branching, spreading well out from 
the central shoot or stalk, thus admitting sunshine 
and air, which are essential in bringing an abundant 
harvest to maturity. Above first or main branches 
others gradually decreasing in length should be ar- 
ranged at ever increasing distance toward the top 
of the main stalk. Picture for a moment a plant 
of this form well laden with good large bolls of cot- 
ton, some open ready for the picker, others just be- 
ginning to part the tips, while still others retain 
the deep color characteristic of health and vigor. 

"Small plants will not be able to make and ma- 
ture bolls enough to give a good satisfactory yield. 
Exceptionally large ones use too much of their life 
and energy in making foliage and stem, and not 
enough in making fruit, or if fruit is produced, it is 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 1 75 

apt to be so late that much of it will fail to mature 
properly. The long'-jointed plant will not set bolls 
enough, neither will the one with short branches 
clear to the ground. The one with long branches 
well up toward the top of the stalk does not get 
sunshine and air during the early ripening' period, 
hence the har^-est may be unduly delayed, and conse- 
quently the crop is injured. 

"The ideal plant should approach in general shape 
a cone wdiose diameter at the base is equal to- three- 
fourths of its altitude. This gives a strong, well 
balanced, open-headed plant." 



EXERCISE 107 

IMPROVEMENT OI- COTTON BY SELECTION 

TUrF.: SPKINC AND FALL TERMS 

Object: To improve productiveness of cotton by seed 
selection. 

Material needed: Field and equipment for cotton 
cnlliivtion. 

DIRECTIONS 

The following' diagram* illustrates the method 
of sclcctiiii;" ct>ttc)ii t\)i" a period of five years. If 
followed carefully, usiii;.; the utuiost care in selec- 
tion, one shoidd inijirove one's cotton seed wonder- 
fully, and thus i;reatly increase the yield. It will he 
ohserxed \vo\u this diagram that a start is made 
with one plant. Let this plant he strong" and vig-or- 
ous. and he i^^iven special attention as to the num- 
ber and size of bolls, length of lint, earliness, and 
yield. Having selected the best plant, plant all the 
seed in a small plot the next year. I-'rom this small 
plot select the best plant, as in the first case, and 
plant the seed from the other plants in the five-acre 
plot. This five-acre plot will produce the third year 
enough seed to plant the general crop the following 
year. C\>ntinue the selection, as shown by the dia- 
gram, {or five years or more. 

♦Kroiii Ve.-»r Book, U. S. Ucp-irtnieiit of .Agriculture. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



177 



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EXERCISE 108 

COxAIPOSITION OF FARM PRODUCTS 

time: fall or spring term 

Object: To learn by comparison the relative amounts 
of the constituents of farm products. 

Material needed: Paper and pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Having^ been given the composition of various 
farm products by the instructor, draw a diagram 
showing the relative amounts of each constituent. 



DIAGRAM SHOWING COMPOSITION OF CORN 



Nitrogen-free extract 
78-4% 

Protein ii.6% 
Fat 5-8% F. 



Fiber, 2.5% 
^- Ash, 1.7% 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 1 79 

Example: 

COMPOSITION OF CORN 

Nitrogen-free extract 78.4% 

Protein 1 1.6% 

Fat 5.8% 

Fiber 2.5% 

Ash 1.7% 

Total 100.0% 



EXERCISE 109 

ff,rtii.izi-:r constituents in American 
it'leijing stuffs 

timk: kai.i, ou si'King tkkm 

Object: To learn the relative amounts of fertilizer con- 
stituents in 1,000 pounds of American feeding stuffs. 

Material needed: Paper and pencil. 
DIRECTIONS 

l'"r<>in tln' l.iMr in tlic appendix draw diaju^rams 
sliovvinj;- the relative ainoiints of fertilizer constit- 
uents in 1,000 pounds of feedini; stuffs. 

lixaniple: 

FERTIIJZKR CONSTITUKNTS IN 1,000 POUNDS OF CORN 

Nitmi^ren 1S.2 lbs. 

JMiospliniic acid 70 

Potash 40 "• 

DIAGRAM S1I(3WIN(; FERTILIZER CONSTITUENTS 
IN CORN 



Nitrogen, 18.2 pounds 



Ph()S|)lioiic acid, 
7 |)()uncls 



Potash, 
4 pounds 



EXERCISE 110 

FEEDING HAY TO HORSES 

time: spring or fall term 

Object: To determine whether the farmer commonly 
feeds too much hay to his horses. 

Material needed: 'fzuo horses at lioiue, hay, grain. 

DIRECTIONS 

For this exercise lia\'e j)ii]jils use two horses 
at their homes. Kecj) in sejjarate stalls and feed 
one horse all the hay he will eat. Considerably re- 
duce the anK>unt of hay t^ix-en to the second horse, 
but feed each horse the usual j^rain ration. 

Keej) this up for several days and see if the horse 
which has been i.jiven a smaller amount ni hay does 
not have as much llesh, appear livelier, and travel 
better than the other one. 

Horses when jji'iven large (juantities of hay are 
ajjt to ha\'e the heaves. 



EXERCISE 111 

CALCULATING RATIONS FOR ANIMALS 

time: fall ok string tekm 

Object: To learn how to balance rations so as to keep 
the animal in good condition and to practice economy 
in feeding. 

Material needed: Paper and pencil. 

Explanations. — Fecdini;- stuffs contain protein, 
carbohydrates, and fat. 'J'hc j^crcenta^cs of tliesc 
inf^redients are found in Table V. of the .'\ppendix. 
]jy the nutritive ratio is meant the proportion of 
protein to carbohydrates and fat combined. The fol- 
lowing formula shows the method of ()l)tainin<4- the 
nutritive ratio: 

(Fat X 2.4) -\- carbohvdrates 

■ =- -. = nutritive ratio 

i'rotein 

]n calculating- the ratio, we multiply the fat by 
2.4; for the fat is nearly 2)/^ times as valuable for 
food as the carbohydrates. 

DIRECTIONS 

I^et us find the nutritive ratio of the following 
ration : 

Clover hay 15 pounds 

Oats 6 pounds 

Cotton-seed meal 3 pounds 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 183 

Multiply each ingredient by the per cent, of pro- 
tein, carbohydrates and fat. 

Protein Carbohydrates Fat 

15 X 7-6 = 1. 140 15 X 38-4 = 5-760 15 X 2.0 = .30 
6 X 9.2 = .552 6 X 47-3 = 2.833 6 X 4-2 = .252 

3 X 3S.1 = I-I43 3 X 16 - .480 3 X 12.6 = .378 



2.835 9-078 .930 

2.232 

II. 310 .93X2.4=2.232 

II. 310 -7- 2.835 = 3.9 Nutritive ratio 1 ; 3.9 



EXERCISE 112 

CALCULATING RATIONS FOR ANIMALS (Continued) 

TIME : FALL OR SPRING TERM 

Object: To learn how to balance rations for different 
animals under different conditions. 

Material needed: Paper and pencil. 

DIRECTIONS 

Select your own feeds and balance rations for the 
animals mentioned in the table below. The number 
of pounds of dry matter and the nutritive ratios are 
given in the same table. 



POUNDS OF FOOD REQUIRED A DAY FOR I,000 POUNDS LIVE 
WEIGHT 



Kind of Aiiiiu.-il 



Oxen at rest 

Oxen at moderate work. 

Fattening cattle 

Milch cows 

Slieep, growing wool. .. 

Fattening sheep 

Horses, moderate work. 
Horses at hard work. . . . 
Fattening swine 




Nutritive Ratio 



6 
5-5 



EXERCISE 113 

FEED AFFECTING THE FLAVOR OF MILK 

time: spring term 

Object: To learn how feeding stuffs affect tlie flavor 
of milk. 

Material needed: Rape, eozv, milk. 

DIRECTIONS 

Ask some student, on whose father's farm rape is 
grown, to feed one of the milch cows some rape in 
the afternoon, and to save a small amount of milk 
at milking time. Carry the milk to school and see 
whether the students can detect any change in the 
flavor due to the rape. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name some other substances that produce bad 
flavors in milk. 

2. Is milk a direct product of food or the blood? 

3. At what time does grass most affect the flavor 
of milk ? 



EXERCISE 114 

SOURING OF MILK 

time: i-ai.i. or spkinc term 

Object: To find a means of preventing the souring of 
milk. 

Material needed: Sei^eral small milk bottles, milk, ther- 
mometer. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Clean several small bottles and dry them in the 
sun. Fill the bottles with fresh milk and divide 
into three lots. Stopper well so as to exclude the air. 

2. Boil one lot for a few minutes. This boilin,i^ 
should kill nearly all the bacteria. 

3. Pasteurize the second lot, i.e., place the bottles 
of milk in water which has been heated to 155° F. 
Leave 20 minutes and set aside to cool. Leave the 
third lot untreated. 

QUESTIONS 

1. TTow loui^ docs the milk keep sweet in each lot? 

2. Does boiling or pasteurizing- alter the ilavor of 
milk? 



EXERCISE 115 

A TEST FOR FORMALIN IN MILK 

time: whenever convenient 

Object: To determine whether milk has been treated 
with formalin. 

Material needed: Milk, fornialin, sulphuric acid. 

DIRECTIONS 

Pour a small amount of formalin into a glass of 
milk and stir. Next pour sulphuric acid into the 
milk, letting it run down the side of the glass. Do 
the same with some milk which has no formalin 
in it. A purple color at the junction of the milk and 
acid indicates the presence of formalin. Persons liv- 
ing in the city should occasionally test their milk 
for formalin, as many milkmen use it to prevent their 
milk from souring. Pasteurizing is legitimate, but 
the use of formalin should be condemned. Milk 
treated with formalin is very harmful to infants. 



EXERCISE 116 

TEMPERATURE FOR CHURNING BUTTER 

time: during warm weather 

Object: To determine whether a high or a low tempera- 
ture is better for churning butter. 

Material needed: Milk ready for churning, churn, hot 
zvatcr, cold water, thermoineter. 

DIRECTIONS 

Have older pupils at whose homes large quanti- 
ties of butter are made divide the cream into two 
parts. Churn one lot at about 58° or 60°, and the 
other at, say, 80° to 85°. With the aid of a ther- 
mometer the temperature can be regulated by hot 
and cold water. \\'hen the two lots have been 
churned, note any difference in the appearance of 
the butter. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Which lot was longer in churning? 

2. What difference do you notice in the granular 
structure? 

3. Why is cream usually kept in a warm place be- 
fore churn in 2:? 



EXERCISE 117 

DIRECTIONS FOR USING THE BABCOCK TEST 

TIME : WHENEVER CONVENIENT 

Object: To learn the method of testing milk for butter 
fat by the use of the Babcock test. 

Material needed: Babcock tester zvith equipment, 
samples of milk. 

DIRECTIONS 

I. Ask students and patrons for funds to purchase 
a Babcock tester for the school. One can be bought 

for $5. 

2.' Let students bring 
fresh milk from their 
homes to be tested. Sam- 
ples should be taken 
while the milk is still 
warm after it has been 
thoroughly mixed. 

3. When the milk has 
been well mixed meas- 
ure out with a pipette 
17.5 cubic centimeters 
and put into the bottles. 
Blow in the upper end 
of the pipette to expel 
all the milk. 
FIG. 48— BOTTLE AND MEASURE 4- Mcasurc out au 




igO RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

■equal amount of acid for each 1:)ottle, holding the 
bottle slantingly ; let the acid run down the side 
of the bottle so as not to come in contact with the 
milk too suddenly, lest the milk be acted upon un- 
evenly. Gently shake the bottles in the hands until 
the acid and milk are thoroughly mixed. The mix- 
ture will become hot and change to a dark brown. 
Care must be taken in handling the acid so as not 
to get any on the skin or clothing: drop a little on 
a rag and find out why. 

5. Place an even number of bottles in the ma- 
chine, replace the cover, and rotate about 700 to 
1,200 revolutions a minute for six or seven minutes. 

6. Add enough hot water to bring the mixture up 
to the bottom of the neck ; place the bottles back in 
the ip.achine and rotate again for three minutes. 
Now add more hot water and bring the fat up in 
the neck where it can be measured. Suppose the 
bottom of the fat column stands at the figure 2 and 
the top at the figure 6, this would show 4 per cent, 
of fat. Each per cent, means one pound of butter 
fat in 100 pounds of milk. 



EXERCISE 118 

DECAY IN APPLES 

time: whenever apples are obtainable 

Object: To show that apples should not be shaken 
from the tree if they are to be kept. 

Material needed: Three ripe apples. 

DIRECTIONS 

Select three apples of the same variety and of the 
same degree of ripeness. Strike one against an ob- 
ject so as to bruise one side without breaking the 
skin; strike another so that the skin is just broken, 
and leave the third uninjured. Place the three 
apples somewhere in the room where they will not 
be disturbed, and examine from time to time. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Which decays first? 

2. What is the function of the skin of an apple? 
Select two apples of very nearly the same size ; 

peel one and weigh both. After 24 hours weigh 
again. 

3. Which has lost the most in weight? Why? 



EXERCISE 119 

DIFFERENT FORMS OF APPLES 

time: fall term 

Object: To learn to classify apples according to form. 

Material needed : Apples of -<'arioiis forjiis. 

DIRECTIONS 

Study well the forms of apples as j^iven in Fis^. 57. 
Practice drawing; these forms until you become 




KU;. 49 FORMS OF Al'PLES 

-4, oblate; j5, conical; C, ovate; Z>, obovate; £, oblong; /% acute; G, 
round-ovate; /^, oblate-conical, i, stem or stalk ; 2, cavity; 3, calyx ; 4, basin ; 
5, core ; 6, axis. 

familiar with them. ]<^Iake a collection of dif- 
ferent varieties of apples ; let the class learn all. the 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE I93 

varieties collected, and classify according to the fol- 
lowinsf table : 



Name of Variety 



Form 



EXERCISE 120 

JUDGING APPLES 

time: fall term 

Object: To learn how to judge apples by use of the 
score card. 

Material needed: Apples, pencil, score card. 

DIRECTIONS 

Let four or more students each bring a plate of 
apples from the home orchard ; set before the class 
and let each student score the number of points for 
each entry and compare with the teacher's score. 

SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING APPLES 
Owner of Exhibit Date 



Points Noted 


Maximum 

Score 


Teacher's 
Score 


Student's 
Score 


Remarks 




20 














IS 












Color 


15 














'' 












Quality 15 








Freedom from blemishes 20 








Total 


100 













Name of Judge 

When single plates are judged, the first score may be omitted. 



EXERCISE 121 

THINNING FRUIT 

time: when apples and pears are about the size ok a small 
crab; peaches and plums after the "june drop" is 

OVER, and danger FROM THE DEPREDATION OF 
THE CURCULIO IS PAST 

Object: To determine whether it pays to thin fruit. 

Material needed: Heavily loaded apple tree in home 
orchard. 

DIRECTIONS 

In the home orchard select a tree heavily loaded 
with fruit. On either the east or the west side thin 
the fruit on one half of the tree, and leave the other 
half unthinned. Apples, pears, and peaches should 
be thinned to 6 or 8 inches ; plums to 2 or 3 inches 
apart. When the fruit is ripe, compare the treated 
and untreated parts of the tree with reference to : 
total amount of fruit, number of broken limbs, color 
and size of fruit, and freeness from disease. 

SUMMARY OF BENEFITS DERIVED FROM 
THINNING FRUIT 

1. Lessens the production of seed, thus preserv- 
ing the vitality of the tree. 

2. Causes the tree to bear crops more regularly. 
Few fruit trees can produce large crops and bear 
fruit buds at the same time. 



196 RURAL SCHOOL Af.RICULTURE 

3. Will produce larger fruit. 

4. Will produce better colored fruit by letting 
more sunlight into the tree. 

5. Preserves the shape of the tree by preventing 
the breaking of overloaded branches, and lessens 
the loss occasioned by rot and other fungous dis- 
eases by eliminating the danger of infection by 
contact. 



EXERCISE 122 

PROPAGATION OF RED AND BLACK RASP- 
BERRIES 

time: fall term 

Object: To show that the red and the black raspberry 
are unlike in their methods of propagation, and that the 
red spreads more rapidly than the black. 

Material needed: Red and black raspberry plants. 

DIRECTIONS 

Go to a garden or field in which both varieties are 
grown. You will notice that the canes of the black 
raspberries bend over and the tips take root in the 
ground. This is tip-rooting, or what some 1)ota- 
nists call a stolon. If these are difficult to find, let 
some of the pupils cover the tips of some canes with 
soil and let them take root. 

Notice that the red raspberry, instead of jiroduc- 
ing tip roots, sends up canes at intervals from roots 
under the ground. In this way a single plant in a few 
seasons will cover a considerable space of ground. 
If left undisturbed, the red raspberry will spend 
most of its time in producing new plants instead of 
fruit, but this can be prevented by cutting off all the 
new shoots except two or three for the next year's 
growth. 

Arc there any varieties growing in the neighbor- 
hood that differ in any way from the ones men- 
tioned? If so, explain how you think they have been 
produced. 



EXERCISE 123 

GRAFTING WAX 
time: early spring 

Object: To learn how to make grafting wax. 

material needed: Scales, tallozv, beeszvax, resin. 

DIRECTIONS 

Weigh out the following ingredients : 
Tallow, I part. 
Beeswax, 2 parts. 
Resin, 4 parts. 
Melt the tallow and beeswax, add the finely 
broken resin, and stir till a uniform mixture results. 
Then pour into cold water, but before the stuff hard- 
ens pull it like taffy. The hands must be well 
greased to prevent sticking. When a good "grain," 
as in pulled taffy, has been produced and when the 
wax becomes tough, mold it into balls or sticks for 
use. 



EXERCISE 124 

CLEFT GRAFTING 

time: before buds begin to swell in the spring 

Object: To change the variety by top-grafting. 

Material needed: Apple tree, grafting knife, grafting 
wax. 

DIRECTIONS 

I. Select a branch I or 1^/2 inches in diameter and 
saw off the branch, usini^- care so the bark may not 

be loosened from any 
part of the stub. Split 
the end of the stub with 
a broad, thin chisel or 
FIG. 5o~GRAFTiNG TOOL grafting tool. 

:?. Prepare the scion, or part to be inserted, by 
taking cuttings from the variety you desire to prop- 
agate, using the previous year's growth. Let the 
scions be long enough to contain two or three buds. 
Now cut the lower end of the scion wedge-shaped, 
leaving the outer edge thicker than the other. 

3. Insert the scions in the cleft of the stock, being 
sure that the cambium layer or growing portion of 
stock and of the scion come in contact. To insure 
proper connection of the growing tissues set the 
scion at a slight angle with the stock. It is a good 
plan to cut the scion so the lower bud will come 
just at the top of the stub. 




200 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



4. When the scions have been placed, cover all 
the cnt i)ortions with grafting wax. 

Facts. — This method is popularly employed upon 




FIG. 51 — CLEFT GRAFTING 
A, prepared scion ; B, scions in place ; C, graft waxed over. 



old trees of apple and pear, and is the most feasible 
way of top-working- an old tree to a new variety. 
Not more than one-third of the tree should be so 
treated in any one year, because of the tendency to 
produce water sprouts when much wood is cut off. 



EXERCISE 125 



WHIP GRAFTING 
time: during the winter months 

Object: To show how to produce new apple trees by 
means of whip grafting. 

Material needed: Knife, apple roots, apple scions, graft- 
ing tzvine. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. This method of j^rafting is done by grafting 
scions on roots and can be done indoors. With a 
sharp knife make a diagonal cut at one end of the 
stock, as shown in Fig. 52, a. Let the cut surface 
be about 1 inch long. Next place the knife about 
one-third the distance from the end of the cut sur- 
face and split the stock in the direction of the longer 
axis. This split should be a little over ^ inch long. 

2. Prepare the lower end of the scion in like man- 
ner (Fig. 52, b). A small difference in the diameter 
of stock and scion may be disregarded. 

3. Force the two parts together as shown in Fig. 
52, c. If the cut surface on both stock and scion 
is straight the two parts will fit neatly. The cam- 
bium layer must come in contact on one side at 
least. 

4. Wrap the united stock and scion with five or 
six turns of waxed yarn, prepared by soaking a ball 
of loosely wound yarn in melted grafting wax. 



202 



RURAL SCHOOL AORICULTURE 



Facts. — Sometimes the entire root is used in this 
method, but usually the roots are cut into pieces 
from 4 to 6 inches long. Roots are dug and scions 




FIG. 52 — WHIP GRAFTS 
a, stock ; b, scion ; c, conipleied graft. 

The drawing at the left shows two stems about to be united ; those at the 
middle and right the grafting of a stem on a root. 



cut in autumn and stored. When the operation is 
complete, the grafted stock is labeled and stored in 
moss, sawdust, or sand in a cool cellar until spring, 
when it is set in the ground deep enough to bring 
the union of stock and scion below the surface of 
the ground. 

This method is very popular in Northern nurseries 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 203 

for propagating- young a])ple and pear trees, the 
former upon roots of seedling apples, grown for the 
purpose in Missouri and other Western states, and 
the latter upon pear seedlings mostly imported from 
France. 



EXERCISE 126 

BUDDING 

TIMK: junk to KAKI.V SKITICMliKK 

Object: To show how budding is done. 

Malt'iiiil needed: )'ouiiii /'<'('<"// //'<v.v, kiiij'c, rafJia or 
yarn. 

DIRECTIONS 

[. To learn how to l)ii(l, practu-c on stems from 
■',s <<^ ' ^' i'lrli in (liaiiu'Ur. Make a 'I' sliaped eut 
tlir()iii;li tin- I)ark. as show n in I'i.U'-.S.v^ • l-ettheper- 
penchcnlar sht hi' a!»onl i ' .■ inches lon^' and llie hor- 
izontal slit onl\- al)ont ' .. inch. 

2. h^"(»ni a hrani-h ol (he same season's j^rovvth 
and of a known \ariely renio\ e a stroni^', healthy 
htid ( Im<4-. s.^ A). Start the knife ' j inch helow the 
l)nd and enl npward nnder this hnd, eomin^' out 
ahout the same dislanee a])o\e it. C"nt onl\' deep 
enough info the wood so as not to injure the hud. 
Avoid loo nmeli wood mnk'r the ])U(\. 

^i,. N'ow' plaee the hn(k I'., in tlu' slit alread\' made 
and ])ush downwariK nnlil the l)ud is securely in 
place, as shown in I), kit;-. 5^^. 

-1. The hud should now he tied, as shown at E, 
until a union is formed. Tie ti_nhtl}- with hands of 
rafiia or yarn. .\s soon as the huds have united 
willi the slock the material used in l\inL; should he 
cut to pre\ ent j^irdliui;- the stock. 



RURAL SCIIOOI. ACRICL'I-TURE 



205 



F'acts. — Peaches are usually j^rafted in June, in 
the second year's growth ; sonieliiiies in the present 
3'ear"s growth, if done lale in the season. The buds 




VIC'. 5.3 — COMMON liUUUINO 

A, method of cutting the Ijud ; H, hud cut ; C, metliod of preparing itie stock ; 
D, hud inserted ; K, hud tied iu place. 



are placed near the <j;-round in stocks, al^out the size 
of a chalk crayon. All the trees in which the buds 
have "taken" must have the tops cut off the follow- 
ing sprinj^'. A slanting cut is made just above the 
inserted bud. 



EXERCISE 127 

HARD-WOOD CUTTINGS 

( 

TIME : FALL TERM 

Object: To show the method of propagating the grape 
and currant. 

Material needed: Knife, yoniii^ eanes of grape. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Simple cuttings. — Cut off a portion of the cane 
of a grape vine, so as to have two or more buds. As 
roots develop most readily near the joints, let the 
lower end be cut just below a bud. At the top the 
cut should be made some distance from the highest 
bud. 

2. Heel cuttings. — Cut off a branch by cutting 
deep enough so as to remove a part of the parent 
branch. Tliis severed portion of the parent branch 
is the so-called heel. Heel cuttings are more likely 
to develop roots than simi^le cuttings are, but only 
one cultiug can l)e made from each lateral branch. 

.^. Mallet cuttings. — Sever a lateral branch with a 
portion of the ])arcnt branch, thus leaving a section 
of the parent branch on the base of the cutting. 
This method has the same advantage and disadvan- 
tage as the heel cutting. 

4. Single-eye cuttings. — Cut the lateral branches 
intcj ])ieces ha\ing only one bud. This method is 



RURAL SCHOOL ACRICULTURE 



207 



used wiicn il is (k'siruhlc to make a larjL,a' number of 
ctittiiiii^s with a limited supply of material. Sini^le- 
eye cuttinj^s are commonly started under i^lass with 




FIG. 54 — CUTTINGS 

a, simple cutting of currant; i, mallet cultiuy of grape; c, root cuttijig ijf 
blackberry ; a', single-eye grape cutting. 

bottom heat: sometimes in hotbeds. The bud is 
placed about i inch under the surface of the soil 
and kept moist. The cutting- may be set either per- 
pendicularly or horizontally with the bud up. 

Cuttings may be kept cjver winter in a cool cel- 
lar, buried in sand, sawdust, or moss. 



EXERCISE 128 

TRANSPLANTING TREES 

time: fall or spring term 

Object: To learn how to prepare and transplant trees 
properly. 

Material needed: Spade, knife, saiv. 

DIRECTIONS 

The first work should be done in the presence of 
the whole class. It should be divided as follows : 
Dig-ging up the tree, pruning", digging the hole, and 
setting the tree out. Let one student each be as- 
signed to the divisions of work mentioned above. 
When the first tree has been planted, read the fol- 
lowing rules for transplanting, and let the class 
judge as to whether any of the rules have been vio- 
lated. 

RULES FOR TRANSPLANTING* 

1. Trees and shrubs that drop their leaves in 
autumn should be transplanted only while their 
leaves are ofif. 

2. Tjake up the plant with the least possible harm 
to the roots. 

3. Trim ofif broken and mangled roots with a 
sharp knife before replanting. 

4. Cut off some of the branches before replanting. 

*From Goff and Mayne's Agriculture. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 209 

5. Make the hole large enong-h to receive the 
roots easily. 

6. Dip the roots in water before replanting. 

7. Pack the moist soil closely about the roots. 

8. If the soil is rather dry, add a pailful of water 
after putting the soil about the roots and before 
putting in all the dirt. If there are sods, put them 
on grass side down. 

9. Mulch the soil about the trees or shrub, if 
the climate is subject to drouth in the spring. 



EXERCISE 129 

PRUNING 
timk: ai'kil and may 



Object: To show where to cut off a branch in pruning 
a tree. 

Matciiitl needed: Orchard. 



DIRECTIONS 

I. Study the inauiKT of healing' over of wounds 
made by ])runiu_L;" a tree. I)escril)c the kind of 
wound which seems to heal most readily. F'rom 
observations do you think it better to remove the 
branch by making the cut lu-ar the main stem or a 
little wav from it ? 



^■^*^'^ 




l-ii si if 

r I 






a 




V\G. 55 — RKSUl.TS OK («) INCORRKCT I'KUNINC;; ( /) ) tORRECT 
1'RUN1N(; 



KUKAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



211 



2. Observe whether the branches have l)een re- 
moved with a saw or an axe. Which of the two 
implements would you use in pruninj^? Why? 





FIG. 56 — DIAGKAM SHOWING RESULTS OF I.N'CORKFCT PRUNING 
a, Ijefore stub decays ; b, after. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Suppose you wish to remove a larj^e liml) from 
a tree, how can it be done without splitting- down 
as it falls? 

2. Why is prunin<( usually done early in the 
spring? 

3. Why should large wounds be painted over with 
white lead? 



212 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 




"i. ty 





— ^ 







EXERCISE 130 

MAP OF THE HOxME GROUNDS 



time: whenever convenient 

Object: To make a map of the home grounds, and find 
in whose home an effort is made to make the surround- 
ings attractive. 

Material needed: Paper and pencil. 

Note. — Fig. 58 shows a school as it was before being im- 
proved ; Fig. 59 shows improvements gained by planting shrubs 
and removing fences ; and Fig. 60 shows a ground plan of 




FIG. 58 — SCHOOL GROUNDS BEFORE IMPROVEMENT 



2T4 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 







FIG. 59 — SCHOOL GROUNDS AFTER IMPROVEMENT 

the place after planting. This la5t will serve as a model for 
making a similar map of the home grounds. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Use Fig. 60 as a model and draw a map of 
your home. Locate all the buildings, fences, paths, 
trees, flower Iseds, etc. 

2. After having drawn the map, write a complete 
description and attach it. 

3. Make a list of all the trees, shrubs, and flowers 
in the home grounds. Ask other members of the 
family to assist, if you have any difiiculty in naming 
them. 

QUESTIONS 

I. Should boys assist in beautifying the grounds 
at home ? 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



215 



2. Why do you usually see prettier grounds in 
the city than in the country? 

3. Is there a good lawn at your home? 

4. What kind of grass makes the best lawn ? 




FIG. 60 — PLAN OF IMPROVED SCHOOL GROUNDS 



EXERCISE 131 

ORDERS OF INSECTS 

time: fall term 

Object: To become familiar with the different orders of 
insects. 

Material needed: Note-book and pencil. 

Note. — Insects are distinguished from other animals by the 
three parts of the body : head, thorax, and abdomen ; three 
pairs of jointed legs, and generally two pairs of wings. A 
few are wingless. 

Mature insects have a more or less hardened skin, to which 
the muscles are attached. The eyes are compound, being com- 
posed of a very large number of hexagonal corneae, from 50 in 
the ant to many thousand in the winged insects. The mouths 
are adapted for either sucking or biting. There are four meta- 
morphoses, or periods of growth : egg, larvae, pupa, and adult. 
When all four are passed through by an insect the metamor- 
phoses are said to be complete ; if only three, incomplete. 
Growth takes place only during the larval period. The length 
of life of an adult ranges from a few hours to several years. 
The larvae are hatched from eggs or, in a few cases, born alive. 
There are more than 250,000 species, grouped in orders, of 
which the following are the principal : 

Order i. Ortlioptcra. — Wings, four, front pair slightly 
thickened, hind pair ti ansparent, broad and folded ; hind legs 
usually large and fitted for leaping; land insects, biting mouths. 
Examples : Crickets, locusts, and grasshoppers. 

Order 2. Neuvoplcra. — Bodies long and slender; wings, 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



217 



four, large, transparent; mouths adapted for biting. Exam- 
ples : Dragon flies, May flies, and caddis flies. 

Order 3. Hemiptera, or true bugs. — 
Mouths adapted to sucking; body flat; 
legs slender; wings, four, but some- 
times wanting; some feed on juices of 
animals, others on juices of plants. Ex- 
amples : Bedbug, louse, water strider, 
seventeen-year locust, and plant louse 
(aphis). 

Order 4. Diptera, or flies. — One 
available pair of wings, some species 
PIC 5j wingless ; eyes large ; mouth of some, 

INSIDIOUS FLOWER-BUG as the fly, enabled to lick up its food, 
of others, like the mosquito, fitted for piercing; legs slender; 
larvae, footless grubs. Examples : Mosquito, Hessian fly, daddy 
longlegs, flea, house fly, and bot fly. 

Order 5. Lepidoptera, or butterflies and moths. — Wings, 
four, large, covered with minute, overlapping scales ; head 
small; body cylindrical; legs of little use for locomotion; 





FIG. 62 — A CUTWORM, PUPA AND MOTH 

mouth fashioned into a long proboscis ; larvae called cater- 
pillars or worms; butterflies fly during the day, moths at 



2l8 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 




night ; wing-; of buUcrtlics raised vertically wlion at rest, moths 
horizontally. 

Order 6. Colco/^tcra, or beetles. — Recognized hy the thick- 
ened, horny fore wings ; strong legs make some of them 
powerful runners ; larvae wormlike, pupa motionless ; mandi- 
bles well developed ; biters. Examples : June bug, ground 
beetles, click beetles, and grain weevils. 

Order 7. Ilyincnoptera. — Ex- 
cept the silkworm, the most 
useful of the insects. Mouth 
fitted for biting and lopping; 
four transparent wings; fe- 
males of many species provided 
with stingers; larvae, footless, 
helpless grubs. Examples: 
Bees, ichneumon flies, and gall 

FIG. 63 — BALD-FACED HORNET A'^S. 

DIRECTIONS 

Make a list of insects not mentioned above, and 
classify them according to the order in which they 
belong. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What insects are most injurious to farm crops? 

2. Which usually do the greatest damage, sucking 
or biting insects? 

3. How do you distinguish a moth from a butter- 
fly ; a beetle from a bug? 

4. Is the caterpillar a worm ? 



EXERCISE 132 

PREPARATION FOR COLLECTING INSECTS 

time: fall term 

Object: To learn how to construct an insect net and 
prepare cyanide bottle. 

Material needed: Wooden handle fonr feet long, tivo 
and one-half feet of No. 8 wire, piece of small broom 
-uiire, one yard of mosquito netting, needle and thread, 
zvide-moiithed bottle {one-half pint), one-half onnce of 
potassium cyanide, poison label, handful of plaster of 
Paris. 

DIRECTIONS 

I. Insect Net. Rend the heavy wire in a circle 
and cross the ends, 1ien(Hn,<; them parallel. Let 




FIG. 64 — INSECT NET 

these parallel parts be 6 inches long. Cut a groove 
in the end of the handle on opposite sides and ex- 



220 



KUHAI. SCHOOL A(;RICl'LTURE 



tcndint^ 8 inches from the end. I 'lace the cross ends 
of the wire in tlie grooves and wrap them securely 
with the small wire. Make a bag of the 
netting-, 30 inches long, with the di- 
ameter the same as the wire circle. 
Sew the bag to the wire circle. 

2. Cyanide Bottle. Break the cy- 
anide* into small pieces, avoid its 
poisonous fumes, and ])lace in the bot- 
tom of a wide-mouthed bottle. Pour 
over the ])ieces just enough water to 
cover them. Ai\d plaster of Paris to 
absorb all the water. Leave the bot- 
KHxiNG HoTTi.K tlc unstoppcrcd until the material 
within is dry, then cork it tightly. Affix the poison 
label and keep the bottle out of the way of children. 
If preferred, the cyanide can be covered with saw- 
dust pressed down firmly and covered with a double 
thickness of blotting paper. 

♦Hear in mind th.Tt potassium cyanide is one of the most deadly poisons known. 
It looks like lump sugar and must be handled with great care. A piece the size 
of a pin's head in one's mouth would cause death. 




EXERCISE 133 

COLLFXTTON AND PRKSICRVATION OF INSECTS 

time: l-Al.L TEKM 

Object: To collect insects and preserve them. 

Material needed: Insect net, i'ollle, insect box, labels. 

DIRECTIONS 

I. Go into the (u'ld and collect as many kinds of 
insects as you can find. Make notes (^n everythinj^ 
you may notice in connection with the life of the in- 
sects, their haunts, associates, 
food, shelter, natural enemies, 
etc. Observe the followinjL^ rules 
in collectinjj;': 

1. Avoid noise and haste ; wear 
(|uiet colors and keep your eyes 
open. 

2. Do not allow insects to die 
a lin^erinjj^ death. Keep live 

f, specimens supplied with food, 
water, and fresh air. 

3. Avoid the wanton destruc- 
tion of life by collecting no more 
specimens than will be used. 

2. After returning from col- 
lecting, remove the insects from 
the jjottle and mount them. A 
cigar box will answer for this 
purpose. The bottom should be 
covered with cork, corrugated 
sPREAmNG^'iiOAKu P^pcr such as is used for packing, 




222 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



or even sections of dry corn-stalks. Run a 
])in through the thorax of most insects and mount 
as shown in Fig. 67. In mounting beetles let 
the pin pass through the right wing cover near 
its upper end, and in mounting true bugs have it 
pass through the triangular-shaped plate near the 






FIG. 67 — CORRECT METHODS OF PINNING VARIOUS INSECTS 



center of the back. Butterflies and moths should be 
kept on a spreading board a short time or until 
thoroughly dry. The spreading board consists of 
two thin pieces of boards placed almost together, 
leaving a groove just large enough to receive the 
body of the butterfly. Press down wings and fasten 
the wings with narrow strips of paper, as seen in 
Fig. 66. 



EXERCISE 134 

THE GRASSHOPPER (Order Orthoptera) 

time: summer or fall 

Object: To study the form and habits of the grass- 
hopper. 

Material needed: Grasshoppers, living and dead, note- 
hook. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Make the following observations in the field: 

1. Its hours of activity. 

2. Its several methods of locomotion. 

3. Its protective coloring. 

4. Its natural enemies. 

5. The sounds fstridulation) made by the 
male while on the wing. 

2. Find in a live specimen the large spiracle 
(l)reathing pore) just above the base of one of the 
middle legs. Watch the opening and closing of the 
two lips that guard the opening into the spiracle. 
Place some fresh leaves of corn or grass under a 
tumbler and watch the grasshopper's mode of eat- 
ing. Liberate a large grasshopper in a room and 
note its longest leaps. How many times its own 
length? Make drawing of the whole insect. 




224 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

3. Study the wings. Note how they are folded. 
Compare the form, color, size, texture, position, and 

use of the two wings. 
The dry horny fore- 
wings are used in 
making the peculiar 
„^^ "^"^'^ sound called stridula- 

FiG. 68 — GREEN STRIPED LOCUST tlou. Draw the two 
wings, showing system of veining. 

4. How does the third pair of legs compare in 
shape, size, color, and use with the first and second 
pairs? Observe tlie hooks and double row of spines 
on the lower parts of one of the large legs. Of what 
advantage are these to the insect? Make an enlarged 
drawing of one of the hind legs. 

5. The female may be distinguished from the male 
by the ovipositor. Find this at the end of the ab- 
domen. It consists. of four points and is used for 
making an opening in the ground to receive the 
eggs. Young grasshoppers are called nymphs, and 
they are very much like the parent in shape and 
appearance. \\'hat differences do you note between 
a nymph and an adult? Catch and feed some young 
grasshoppers for a month and make notes of what 
changes occur as the nymphs grow. 

6. Compare the grasshopper with crickets, katy- 
dids, and cockroaches and note their points of re- 
semblance and difference. 



EXERCISE 135 



THE DRAGON-FLY (Order Nenroptera) 

time: summer or early fall 

Object: To study the form and habits of the dragon-fly. 
Material needed: Insect net, cyanide bottle, note-book. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Collect several dragon-flies and keep some of 
them alive. While collecting, observe : 

1. The places frequented. 

2. The habit of flight. 

3. The hours of flight. 

4. The food sought. 

2. Liberate a live dragon-fly in a closed room and 
note its mode of flight, the position of its wings in 




FIG. 69 — A dragon-fly 



226 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

flight and at rest. Place it in a cyanide bottle only- 
long enough to stupefy it, then turn it out again 
upon a paper, and study its respiratory movements. 
The spiracles or breathing pores are on each seg- 
ment of the abdomen. Two larger spiracles are 
found on each side of the thorax. Observe that the 
body is spindle-shaped, the head is rounded, and 
the abdomen angled and tapering. 

3. Note the shape and size of the legs. How do 
they compare with those of the grasshopper? What 
is the advantage to the animal in having all the legs 
bunched together? Draw a general outline of this 
insect. Make an enlarged drawing of a wing, so as 
to show the veining. Note the transparency of the 
wing. 

4. Find some nymphs in a shallow pond fre- 
quented by the dragon-fly. The nymphs are the 
young dragon-flies. Compare all parts of the body 
with the full-grown fly. Look about the vegeta- 
tion above the water for nymph skins. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How many species of dragon-flies have you 
seen ? 

2. A\^hy do the adults often dart down and dip the 
tip of their abdomens in the water? 

3. \\"hat obnoxious insect is destroyed by dragon- 
flies? 

4. Do dragon-flies fly forward only? 



EXERCISE 136 

THE CICADA OR DOG-DAY HARVEST FLY 
(Order Hcmiptcra) 
time: summer or fall 
Object: To study the harvest fly. 

Material needed: Harvest fly, note-hook. 



Note.- 






This insect is known by its shrill cry while resting 
upon the boughs of trees. Its color 
is black and green, powdered with 
white underneath the body. The 
young flies are seldom seen, but the 
exuviae, or cast-ofif skins, which it 
sheds in molting, are objects of 
common observation. Eggs are laid 
in slits made in the twigs of trees. 
There they hatch ; the young drop 
to the ground, bury themselves, and 
feed upon the juices of the roots of 
plants. They require two years to 
complete their growth. The second 
summer after hatching, the nymph 
crawls upon a weed or tree trunk, a 
short distance above the ground, 
and there molts, or casts off the old 
skin. After the wings are dry it 
flies away. 




FIG. 70 

DOG-DAY HARVEST FLY 



DIRECTIONS 

I. Study a ftill-grown specimen. Observe the 
general shape of the body. Note the peculiar mark- 



228 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

ings on the body ; the shape and position of the 
eyes. Observe the structure of the wings. Describe 
this. Draw a wing. How do the legs compare with 
those of the grasshopper? 

2. Look at the base of the abdomen for the musi- 
cal organs. These consist of ribbed parchment- 
like bags in little depressions. They are provided 
with powerful muscles by which the air is driven 
against the fluted surfaces. This vibration produces 
the noisy whirr so often heard. 



EXERCISE 137 

THE BLUEBOTTLE FLY (Order Diptera) 
time: during warm weather 

Object: To become familiar with the bluebottle fly. 

Material needed: Pieces of fresh meat, insect net, cyan- 
ide bottle. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Expose a bit of fresh meat. until some of the 
bluebottle flies are attracted to it. Note the sound of 
their buzzing as they move around the meat. Do 
they seem to be shy? Catch a fly with the net; hold 
it by the feet, leaving its wings free. Is the buzzing 
in a lighter or lower key? Hold both wings and 
legs and note any difference in the pitch of the 
sound. How do you account for this variation? 

2. Hold the piece of meat in the fingers, and with 
a ha,nd lens study the fly's feeding habits. What is 

its manner of eating? Has it yet 
deposited any eggs on the meat? 
3. Leave a fly in the cyanide 
bottle until it is dead. Observe 
the general contour of the body. 
Compare the shape of the body 
with that of the other insects you 
have studied. Are the legs of the 
FIG 71 *" same shape and size? Note the 
COMMON FLESH FLY numbcr of segments in the ab- 




230 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

domen. Study the shape, size, texture, and position 
of the wings. Make a drawing of one of the wings. 
4. Place a bit of meat, upon which eggs have been 
laid, in a flower pot containing sand. Invert a 
tumbler over this, and press it into the sand to pre- 
vent the escape of offensive odors. The eggs will 
hatch in a few hours and the larvae will soon begin 
to feed upon the flesh. Later they will crawl down 
into the sand and remain until they transform to 
the adult stage. If the weather is warm this will be 
speedily done, otherwise they may pass the winter 
before transforming. 



EXERCISE 138 



BEETLES (Order Colcoptera) 



time: fall or spring term 



Object: To study and compare different species of 
beetles. 

Material needed: Insect net, cyanide bottle, note-hook. 

DIRECTIONS 

I. Collect a number of 
beetles and name them. If 
you are unable to identify 




FIG. 72 — ground beetle: 

a, LARVA ; b, ADULT 

some of the beetles 
consult Comstock's 
Insect Life. 

2. Study the differ- 
ent body parts as in 
the preceding exer- 
cises. What is the 




FIG. 72) — A CLICK BEETLE 



232 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

object of the hard wing coverings or elytra? Com- 
pare the mode of locomotion with that of the grass- 
hopper. Upon what do the beetles feed? 

3. Find out all you can in regard to the corn root 
worm, and prepare a short paper describing it, 

QUESTIONS 

1. How may you distinguish Caterpillars from 
grubs? 

2. Which are generally larger, beetles or bugs? 

3. Are there any water beetles? 



EXERCISE 139 

BUMBLEBEES ( Order Hymenoptera) 
time: fall term 

Object: To study the form and life habits of the bum- 
blebee. ' 

Material needed: Same as in preceding exercise. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Field study of the bumblebee. Observe: 

1. The kind of flowers upon which they feed. 

2. The flower most frequented by them, also 
what other insects feed upon the same 
flower. 

3. The two products gatliered from flowers : 
nectar and pollen. 

4. Whether they visit more than one species 
of plants on the same trip. 

5. Whether they are shy while feeding. 

6. The time spent on each flower. 

2. Wet a bee with water while feeding, and note 
the effect on the power of flight. Are bumblebees 
frequently caught in rains? 

3. Collect several bees and put them in the bottle. 
Note the pitch of the humming while in the net. 
Compare a bumblebee with a butterfly in: 

1. Speed and directness of flight. 

2. Rapidity of wing strokes. 

3. Relative size of body and wings. 



234 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICITLTURE 

QUESTIONS 

1. \\ liy (Iocs not an early cuttiuL; {>{ clover make 
good seed ? 

2. Why does the honey hee feed on while cloxer? 

3. During what hours of the day are huuiblchces 
most active? 

4. Where do they build their nests? 



EXERCISE 140 

THE CABBAGE BUTTERFLY (Okuek Lcpidol>tcra) 

time: Sl'KING OK FALL 

Object: To study the characteristics of the cabbage 
butterfly. 

Material needed: Same as in preceding exercise. 

Note. — This butterfly is small, with yellow wings bordered 
with black, and has a silvery spot on the lower surface of the 
hind wings. 

DIRECTIONS 

I. Collect specimens for use and for preserva- 
tion. While collecting, study the butterfly's haunts 
and habits. Observe: 

1. The kind of 
flowers on which 
they feed. 

2. Whether they 
feed while on the 
wing", or while 
resting on the 
flower. 

FIG. 74 — CABBAGE BUTTERFLY t^, ^ , 

3. The food, 
which is nectar, the raw material of which honey is 
made, found at the base of the petals. Can you 
taste the nectar in the flower? What organ does the 
butterfly use in collecting the nectar? 

2. Liberate a live butterfly on a closed window. 




236 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

Note the position of its wings when at rest. This 
position is taken by all true butterflies and enables 
one to distinguish a butterfly from a moth. Ob- 
serve the insect's irregular flight and peculiar jerky 
w^alk. 

3. Make careful observation of all parts of the 
body and record what you see. Examine the scales 
under a lens. 

4. Make a collection of a number of species of 
butterflies and note differences in shape, size, color, 
and habits. 



EXERCISE 141 

PREPARATION OF SPRAYING MATERIAL 

time: just before time for spraying 

Object: To learn how to prepare Bordeaux mixture, 
Paris green, kerosene emulsion, and lime-sulphur wash. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. Bordeaux mixture: 
Prepare the mixture as follows : 

Copper sulphate (blue vitriol), 4 pounds. 

Quicklime (not slaked), 4 pounds. 

Water, 50 gallons. 
Hang the copper sulphate in a burlap bag which 
dips a few inches below the surface of 25 gallons 
of the water in a barrel. In another barrel slake the 
lime with a little water and when done add the 
balance of the water; stir and strain. Pour the two 
solutions together either through hose or from two 
pails held near each other and poured from simul- 
taneously so the two streams mix as they fall and 
continue to do so in the barrel. If Bordeaux is to be 
used on peach foliage, add 25 more gallons of water. 

2. Paris green : 

For apples and pears : i pound of Paris green, 2 
pounds lime, 150 gallons of water. 

For plum and cherr}- : i pound of Paris green, 2 
pounds lime. 300 gallons of water. 



238 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

For potato beetle : i ponnd Paris green, 60 gal- 
lons of water. 

Paris green should not be used on peach foliage. 

Mix the Paris green in a cup with a little water, 
until it is like paste. If added dry to the water it 
will float. 

3. Kerosene emulsion : For kerosene emulsion 
use the following ingredients : 

Kerosene (coal oil), 2 gallons. 

Rain water, i gallon. 

Soap, vj pound. 
Dissolve the soap in boiling water; remove from 
the fire and while hot pour in the kerosene. Churn 
briskly for five minutes. Before using dilute with 
six to nine parts of water. 

4. Lime-sulphur wash: 

Lime, 15 pounds. 

Sulphur, 15 pounds. 

Water, ^o gallons. 
Slake the lime with hot water, then add water till 
it makes a thin whitewash. Blend the sulphur with 
water into a thin paste ; add to the whitewash and 
mix thoroughly. Boil one hour, or until the mix- 
ture is of a brick-red color, stirring frequently to 
keep it from caking on the side of the vessel. Dilute 
to 50 gallons and bring to a boil again ; strain it 
boiling hot through a wire screen and apply as hot 
as possible. 



EXERCISE 142 

STUDY OF SPRAYING CALENDAR 

time: whenever convenient 

Object: To learn how to combat insect pests and plant 
diseases. 

DIRECTIONS 

Study well the table given in this exercise, so that 
yon may know when, how, and for what to spray. 



Insect Pest or Disease 


When to Spray 


With What to Spray 


All scale insects 


Early spring before buds swell 


Lime-sulphur wash 


Striped melon beetle 


When young plants appear 
above ground 


Tobacco dust 


All leaf-eating insects 


When insects appear 


Paris green, or other 
arsenical poison 


Fruit rot 


Before blossoms open 


Bordeaux mixture 


Codling moth 


Just after the blossoms fall 


Paris green 


Leaf curl 


Before buds swell 


Bordeaux mixture 


Twig blight* 


Before buds open 


Lime-sulphur wash 


Potato «.cab 


Treat before planting 


2 percfnt. solution 
of formalin 


All sucking insects, as 
plant lice 


When insects appear 


Kerosene emulsion or 
miscible oils 


Mildews and black 
rot of grape 


belorc blossoms open 

When leaves are one-third 

grown 

Just after fruit sets, and every 

two weeks thereafter 


Bordeaux mixture 



* Cut affected branches back to sound wood and burn them. Keep tools dis- 
infected by wiping with cloth saturated with kerosene. 



EXERCISE 143 

PREPARATION OF HERBARIUM SPECIMENS 

time: spring term 

Object: To learn how to prepare plants for the 
herbarium. 

Material needed: Newspapers, carpet paper, scissors, 
note-hook. 

DIRECTIONS 

1. In preparing herbarium specimens, use driers 
made of ordinary carpet paper, cut into sheets 12 by 
18 inches. Place each plant in a folder made of 
newspaper, and alternate with the driers. 

2. Place upon the pack a plank of the same size 
as the driers, and subject the whole to a pressure of 
50 to 100 pounds by means of blocks of wood, or 
stones. 

3. The driers nuist be replaced by dry ones daily 
during the first four or five days, and after that 
at longer intervals for a week or ten days, until 
the specimens are dry. In changing the driers 
simply shift the folders containing the plants from 
one set of driers to dry ones. 

4. When the specimens are dry, fasten them to 
stifT white paper by means of strips of gummed 
paper. Place a label bearing the name, place, date 
of collecting, and collector's name in the lower right- 
hand corner. 

5. Collect all the different weeds of the farm, dry, 
mount, label, and keep for future reference. 



GLOSSARY 

Absorption — The process of taking in substances, as a sponge 

drinking in water. 
Acid — A chemical compound sour to the taste, capable of turn- 
ing blue litmus paper red. 
Alkaline — Alkaline substances are not sour, have a soapy taste, 

and turn reddened litmus paper blue. 
Ammonia — A chemical combination of hydrogen and nitrogen. 
Ash — The material left after the burning of organic substances. 
Assimilate — To convert into the tissues of the plant or of the 

animal. 
Bacteria — Minute plants frequently present in fermentation, 

decay, and disease. They thrive in the nodules found on 

the roots of clover, alfalfa, cow-peas, etc. 
Balanced ration— A feed containing the proper proportion of 

pt-otein and carbohydrates. 
Barren — Not fruitful. 
Calcium carbonate — Limestone ; a combination of carbonic acid 

gas and calcium. 
Calyx — A whorl of green leaves at the base of the flower. 
Capillary — Applied to very minute tubes or pore spaces 

through which liquids may move. 
Carbohydrates — Foods which include starch, the sugars, and 

cellulose. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and 

oxygen. 
Carbon dioxide — Sometimes called carbonic acid gas ; com- 
posed of oxygen and carbon. 
Cereals — Crops which are grown for their grain. 
Chemical change — A change in which a new substance is 

formed. 
Clay — The finest of soil particles ; a combination of silica, 

alumina, and water. 
Combustion — The act of burning. 
Condensation — The process of changing gases or vapors to the 

liquid state. 



242 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

Copper sulphate — Bluestone; a combination of copper and 

sulphuric acid. 
Corolla — A whorl of leaves just inside the calyx and usually 

colored other than green. 
Cryptogam — A low class of flowcrless plants ; example, mush- 
rooms. 
CurcuHo — A snouted beetle, very injurious to the plum and 

apricot. 
Cuttings — Parts of the stem, root, or leaf used for producing 

a new plant. 
De Candolle — A French botanist. 
Decomposition — The act of breaking up a compound into its 

elements. 
Deliquescent — Branched in a manner so that the stem or trunk 

is lost in the branches. 
Detasseling — Removing the tassels. 
Disseminate — To scatter, as s^ed ; to spread. 
Dormant — Not active ; asleep. 
Effervescence — The production of innumerable small gas 

bubbles in a liquid by chemical activity. 
Evaporation — The changing from a liquid to a gaseous state. 
Excurrent — The term used when an axis continues throughout 

the body. Example, the trunk of a pine. 
Experiment — A trial, proof, or test of anything. 
Fertility — Fruitfulness, richness, power to produce. 
Fertilizer — Any material that will enrich the soil and supply 

plant food. 
Fiber — Short cells which make up the substance of solid wood. 
Fibrous — Consisting of fibers. Example, the roots of the 

wheat plant. 
Florist — One who cultivates flowering plants. 
Formaldehyde — A chemical compound used for preventing 

decay. 
Function — Office or action of organs in animal or vegetable 

life. 
Germinate — To grow. 
Gluten — A substance in grains containing albumen. It makes 

wheat dough tenacious and elastic. 
Graphic — Written, drawn, inscribed. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 243 

Gravity — The force which tends to pull bodies to the center of 
the earth. 

Heaves — A disease in horses characterized by heavy and labori- 
ous breathing. 

Humus — Vegetable mold formed by the decay of plants. 

Ingredient — One of the substances composing any compound 
or mixture. 

Insoluble — Not readily dissolved. 

Kainit — A potash fertilizer found in large quantities in Ger- 
many ; contains about 25 per cent, sulphate of potash, 
mixed with sulphate of magnesia and common salt. 

Kernel — That which is inclosed in a shell, husk, etc. 

Lime — Combination of calcium and oxygen, formed by burn- 
ing limestone. 

Lime water — A solution made by dissolving lime in water. 

Litmus paper — A paper used for determining whether sub- 
stances are acid or alkaline. 

Loam — Soil containing a mixture of sand and clay. 

Membrane — A thin tissue that will permit the passage of a 
liquid through it. 

Mulch — A layer of vegetable matter or dust on the soil used 
to check the loss of soil moisture by evaporation. 

Nectar — A sweet juice found in flowers from which bees make 
honey. 

Nitrate — Combination of nitric acid with a metal or salt. 
The form of nitrogen used by plants. 

Nitrogen — An element of plant food used chiefly in making 
stems and leaves. 

Nitrogen-free extract — Animal or vegetable compounds with 
no nitrogen in their composition. 

Nitrogenous matter— Substances containing nitrogen. 

Nutritive — Having the power of nourishing or building up the 
body. 

Oblate — Flattened or shortened. 

Oblong — Longer than broad. 

Organic matter — The part that passes into the air in burning 
substances. 

Osmosis — The mixing of dissimilar substances through a 
porous membrane. 



244 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

Ovary — A hollow case at the base of the pistil containing the 

egg cell. 
Pasteurizing — A process by which the fermentation of milk is 

retarded. 
Petal — One of the divisions of the corolla. 
Phosphoric acid — Compound composed of phosphorus and 

oxygen. 
Pistil — Part of the flower that receives the pollen. 
Potash — Composed of potassium and oxygen ; one of the 

essentials of plant food. 
Prolificacy — Fruitfulness, great productiveness. 
Propagate — To generate, to increase, to renew. 
Protein — An ingredient of foods used in building muscle. 
Protoplasm — The living matter of a cell. 
Rape — A plant of the turnip family. 
Ration — A fixed amount or quantity of food. 
Resin — A substance that exudes from plants when incisions 

are made in the stems or branches. 
Respiration — The act of breathing. 
Rigidity — The state of being rigid. 
Saturate — To fill fully, to soak. 
Sediment — The matter which settles to the bottom from water 

or any other liquid. 
Sepal — One of the divisions of the calyx. 
Silt — Very fine soil particles, just between fine sand and clay 

in size. 
Solutions — Product formed by dissolving a gas or a solid in 

water. 
Stamen — Parts of the flower which bear the pollen. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



245 



APPENDIX OF USEFUL TABLES 



SCORE CARDS 

COMPOSITION OF MANURES 

Table I 
Nitrogenous Manures 



Article 


Pounds in a Hundred 


Nitrogen 


Phosphoric Acid 


Potash 




15/4 'o 16 
19 to 2ol4 
12 to 14 

ID to II 

II to 1254 
5 to 6 
7 to 9 
e'A to 7K 






Ammonium sulphate 

Dried blood, high grade 

Dried blood, low grade 










3 t" 5 
I to 2 
II to 14 
6 to 8 
I to 2 
















i to 3 





Table II 
Phosphatic Manures 



Article 



South Carolina phosphate rock 

Florida phosphate rock 

South Carolina dissolved rock. 

Florida dissolved rock 

Ground bone 

Steamed bone 

Dissolved bone 



Pounds in a Hundred 



Phosphoric Acid 



Available Insoluble Total 



12 to 15 
14 to 16 

5 to 8 

6 to q 

13 to 15 



26 to 28 

33 to 35 

I to 3 

1 to 4 
i.S to 17 
1 6 to 20 

2 to 3 



26 to 28 

33 to 35 

13 to 16 

16 to 20 

20 to 25 

22 to 2g 

15 to 17 



Nitrogen 



2}4 to 4 
I'A to 2 
2 to 3 



246 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

Table III 
PoTAssic Manures 







Pounds in 


a Hundred 




Article 


Potash 


Phosphoric 
Acid 


Lime 


Chlorine 




50 
48 to 52 
12 to 125^ 
16 to 20 
20 to 30 
2 to 8 
I to 2 

5 to 8 






40 to 48 

H to iK 

30 to 32 
42 to 46 






















7 to 9 
I to 2 
I to iK 
3 to 5 


10 
30 to 35 
35 to 40 

3M 



















Table IV 
Average Composition of Farm Manures 







Pounds in a Hun 


died 




Article 


Moisture 


Nitrogen 


Phosphoric 
Acid 


Potash 

0.36 
0-53 
0.67 
0.60 
0.85 
0.63 


Lime 


Cow manure, fresh. . . 


8s-3 
71-3 
64.6 
72-4 
56.0 
75.0 


0.38 
0-53 
0.83 
0.45 
1.63 
0.50 


0.16 
0.28 
0.23 
0.19 
0.54 
0.26 


0.31 




0.33 
0.08 








Mixed stable manure,... 


0.70 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



247 



-* f^. m 
006 



fO ■* ■* o o 

6 6 6 6 >^ 



a O' O f^ M 



d 6 



moo 

odd 



o* o t^oo IN 00 

6 6 6 6 6 6 



mvO t^CO o 

d d d d M 



o moo o < 



O O fn 

6 6 6 



O O "O »o O 



mmmWNOO 00 MMMfrrn 



(■•O VO O^O 



■ ■* O ■* O ^ fO 
) O 00 000 VO 



ro ■♦ ■* fo f 



vo vo fo m M m 



■* N ■*oo r-^ « t^ 1^ ■* e^ o 

6^66666 ohmn 



\0 <N ^O 00 O 



I o- ^^ -^vo t^ 



O 1^ •-< O 0*0 
M d ei r^ <N - 



0*0 00 IS rf ON 

»n t^ d M d w M 



o « t^ O <N 
00 000 o fn 



a 



mo M O 



O O r^ 't- a>*0 O O-o r^ -^ O O O 



o o* O^ t^ o 

00 00 00 C30 o 



I? 






o 









.S iJ" 

,^ £x 
L'2'O-a 
i E u u 

■ S ° c 
; 322 



248 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

Table VI 

Standard Fertilizer Formulas for Corn and Cotton on Old 
Uplands, Recommended by the Georgia Station* 

formula no. i 
For Corn on Old, Worn Uplands 

1. Acid phosphate (14 per cent.) 1,000 lbs. 

2. Cotton meal (2^ : 7: 1/2) 1,250 lbs. 

3. Muriate of potash (50 per cent.) 30 lbs. 

4. (or kainit, 120 lbs.) 

Total 2,280 lbs. 

Analysis : 

Ph. Ni. Po. 

Using I, 2, 3 7.50 3.83 1.48 

Using I, 2, 4 7.21 3.70 1.43 

FORMULA NO. 2 

For Cotton on Old, Worn Uplands 

1. Acid phosphate (14 per cent.) 1,000 lbs. 

2. Cotton meal (2^ :7:i5-2) 700 lbs. 

3. Muriate of potash (50 per cent.) 75 lbs. 

4. (or kainit. 300 lbs.) 

Total 1,775 lbs. 

Analysis : 

Ph. Ni. Po. 

Using I, 2, 3 8.87 2.70 2.70 

Using I, 2, 4 7.87 2.45 2.45 

On well improved soils, or comparatively new lands, the 
cottonseed meal may be reduced by one-third to one-half in 
either of the foregoing formulas. On such soils, when only a 
very light application is intended to be made, acid phosphate 
alone may give more profitable results than a complete fer- 
tilizer. 

* Bulletin 69 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



249 



Table VII 
Average Composition of Farm Manures 



F;irm Manures 




Pounds in 


a Hundred 




Nitrogen 


Total Phos. 
Acid 


Potash 


Lime 




0.34 
0.58 
0.83 

0-45 
1.63 
0.50 


0. 16 
0.28 
0.23 
0. ig 
1.54 
0.26 


0.40 

0.53 
0.67 
0.60 
0.85 
0.63 


0.31 
0.21 

0-33 
0.08 
0.24 
0.70 


Horse manure (fresh) 

Sheep manure (fresh) 

Hog manure (fresh) 


Mixed stable manure 



Table VIII 
Legal Weights of a Bushel of Produce 



Articles 



Pounds 



Apples 

Apples, dried . . 

Beans 

Buckwheat 

Corn, ear 

Corn, shelled .. . 

Onions 

Peaches 

Potatoes, Irish. . 
Potatoes, Sweet 

Peas 

Bluegrass seed. . 

Timothy 

Cloverseed 

Cottonseed 

Wheat 

Oats 

Turnips 

Barley 

Rye 



24 
60 

52 
70 
56 
57 
38 
60 
55 
60 
14 
45 
60 

32 
60 

32 
55 



250 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

COTTON SCORE CARD (JOHNSON) 

1. Plant 

Size, medium to large 6 

Form, spreading conically 6 

With jointed and developed branches 4 

Properly shaped and filled head or 
center 4 

2. Prolificacy 

Number of bolls 10 

Trueness, to variety type in arrange- 
ment of bolls, singly or in clusters. . 5 ..... 

3. Bolls 

Size, large 5 

Form, true to type 5 

Opening, good, fair, poor 5 

4. Total Yield of Seed Cotton 20 

5. Per Cent, of Lint to Seed 20 

6. Lint 

Length 2.5 

Fineness 2.5 

Purity 2.5 

Uniformity 2.5 



Total 100 

Name of scorer 

Date 

Place 

Sample No Rank 



DIRECTIONS FOR JUDGING COTTON* 

On the score card as suggested the ideal plant is given a 
rating of 20 points. In judging the exhibits in contests, cuts 
should be made more severe as the plant departs further from 
the standard. 

* From Bulletin No. 44, University of Georgia. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 25 1 



I. The Plant 

For plants departing only slightly from the variety standard 
as to size, a cut of one to two points should be made. If this 
departure is very marked, a cut of four points may be made. 
For less than three or more than four lower long branches cut 
one point for each unit ot departure. If these branches are 
defective either in total length or in diameter of the stem, cut 
from one to three points as the departure may be more or less 
pronounced. 

For excessively long joints and poorly placed and developed 
branches cut a maximum of three points. For slight defects 
in these respects cut from one-half to two points. 

For a well opened or vase-shaped head admitting air and 
light in abundance, allow four points as the perfect score. 
When the head is full on account of superabundance of long 
upright branches, cut a maximum of three points ; as these 
faults are less pronounced reduce the cuts until for slight de- 
fects on these accounts a maximum cut of one-half point 
should be given. 



2. Prolificacy 

In considering the fruitfulness of a plant or set of plants 
the term prolificacy can be used only in a relative sense. The 
plant possessing the greater number of bolls should be given 
a rating of ten, or perfect in this respect ; while others should 
be cut more or less severely as the number of bolls they bear 
fall below that of the standard. The single or cluster arrange- 
ment of bolls should vary with the typical habit of the 
variety — som.e varieties are cluster-bearers, while others are 
noted for bearing bolls singly. Uniformity in which the bolls 
are arranged on any exhibit should be made the standard. 
Give an exhibit absolutely uniform in this respect five points. 
As others are more or less irregular in this respect cut from 
one to four points on the score card. 



252 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

3. Bolls 

Next in importance to prolificacy or nnnibor of bolls is their 
size, shape, and manner of opening. Large bolls yield more 
cotton to the boll than do small ones. There is also a differ- 
ence in the average size of the bolls on different plants of any 
single variety. The preference should be given to the plants 
bearing the larger bolls, provided, of course, the increase in 
size fully compensates for the decrease in number. Let the 
judge of any set of exhibits strike an average in size of the 
bolls on three of the largest boiled stalks shown and use this 
as his standard. 

Now, as plants are judged for size of bolls, where bolls are 
only slightly below the standard cut from one-half to one 
point. As this departure becomes more marked the cuts 
should be more severe, vmtil the maximum cut of four points 
should be made for a plant whose bolls are less than one-half 
the standard size. 

The shape or form should be true to that peculiar to the 
particular variety shown. Uniformity in shape or form in 
plants and fruit shows good breeding, and also suggests ability 
to transmit desirable qualities to the progeny. Consequently, 
it is of value to the plant breeder. Give the plant whose bolls 
are all of one form or shape consistent with that of the variety 
a rating of five points. As the bolls are of different shapes 
cut from one to four points as the number departing greatly 
from the variety shape increases. 

The way in which the mature bolls open is of importance. 
The opening should be such as to make the cotton easy to pick, 
but at the same time it should not be such as to cause shed- 
ding of lint. For the best opening bolls give the plant a rating 
of five points. If the opening is only fair, make a cut of from 
one to two, and when it is poor cut from three to four points. 

4. Yield of Seed Cotton 

Yield of seed cotton while depending on the three qualities 
already discussed, that is, the right kind of plant and a suffi- 
ciently large number of bolls of good size and shape, should 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 253 

have considerable weight in fixing the value or superior rating 
of any cotton exhibit. 

After the exhibit has been rated as to prolificacy and size of 
bolls, select a fixed number, say ten average sized bolls, already 
opened, pick the seed cotton from these bolls, determine the 
yield from these bolls, and then with this average calculate the 
yield from the entire ten plants constituting the exhibit. Give 
the best-yielding lot a rating of 20 points. Then as others yield 
less and less give them a maximum of 15 points. 

5. Per Cent, of Lint 

After the total yield has been rated attention must be given 
to the per cent, of lint produced by the different lots of cotton 
to be judged. This is given a possible rating of 20 points, 
which should be assigned only to samples showing not less 
than 35 per cent, of the lint to seed cotton. For each and 
every i per cent, below 35 the sample should be given a cut 
of one point. Thus if a sample should show only 25 per cent, 
lint, it should receive a cut of 10 points, which deducted from 
the possible score of 20 points, indicating perfection, leaves 
only ID points to the credit of the sample. 

The per cent, of lint should be determined by taking the 
contents of a few bolls from each sample, placing them in the 
sun or, better, a dry room for a period sufficiently long to 
bring the samples to a uniform point of dryness ; after which 
the lint should be removed from the seed by hand, after which 
each should be carefully weighed and the percentages calcu- 
lated. 

6. Quality of Lint 

Quality of lint is assigned a possible rating of ten points on 
the score card. These are divided up as follows : Length, 2^ 
points ; fineness, "Z^/z ; purity, 2^ ; uniformity as to length, fine- 
ness, purity, and freedom from faulty fibers, 2^ points. Of 
course, these scores are intended only to offer means or stand- 
ards by which the different exhibits may be compared. There- 
fore, when there is a point about which there seems to be un- 
certainty, the most perfect sample can well be given the highest 



254 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



OFFICIAL CORN SCORE CARD 

(After Holden) 



Name of scorer. 
Sample No 



■ Date Place. 

Table 



I. Tiueness to type or breed 


I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 

















3. Purity of color— 

a. Grain 5 





























i. Cob 5 




4. Vitality or seed condition 10 






















5- Tips 5 
















































7. Kernels, a. uniformity of 10 




















t. Shape of 5 
















































9. Circumference of ear. .. . 5 






















10. Space — a. Furrows be- 
tween rows 5 


















i 




i. Space between ker- 
nels at cob 5 



















11. Proportion of corn to cob 10 

















































REASONS FOR CUTS 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 255 

score obtainable for tliat point ; then the others sliould be 
rated as they approach the standard fixed by this best sample. 
Thus, for the longest lint give two and a half points, and 
the same for the finest, also that showing the greatest de- 
gree of purity, and also for the greatest uniformity. Then 
as other samples fall short in any one or all these respects, cut 
accordingly. 

This score card is not intended as a final and inflexible yard- 
stick by which the merits of cotton of various types shall be 
measured throughout years to come, but rather as a temporary 
one to be used only until a better and more suitable one is 
suggested. 

EXPLANATION OF POINTS IN CORN JUDGING 

1. Trueness to type or breed characteristics ; 10 points — The 
ten ears in the sample should possess similar or like character- 
istics and should be true to the variety which they represent. 

2. Shape of ear; 10 points — The shape of the ear should 
conform to the variety type. Ears should be full and strong 
in central portion, and not taper too rapidly toward the tip, 
indicating strong constitution and good yield. 

3. Purity of color: (a) Grain; five points — Color of grain 
should be true to variety and free from mixture. For one or 
two mixed kernels, a cut of one-fourth point; for four or more 
mixed kernels, a cut of one-half point should be made. Dif- 
ferences in shade of color, as light or dark red, white or 
cream color, must be scored according to variety character- 
istics, (b) Cob; five points — An ear with white cob in yellow 
corn or red cob in white corn should be disqualified or marked 
zero. This mixture reduces the value of the corn for seed 
purposes, indicates lack of purity, and tends toward a too wide 
variation in time of maturity, size and shape of kernels, etc. 

4. Vitality or seed condition; 10 points — Corn should be in 
good market condition, show good constitution, being capable 
of producing strong, vigorous growth and yield. 

5. Tips; five points — The form of tip should be regular; 
kernels near tip should be of regular shape and size. The 
proportion of tip covered or filled must be considered. Long 



256 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

pointed tips, as well as blunt, flattened, or double tips, are ob- 
jectionable. 

6. Butts; five points — The rows of kernels should extend in 
regular order over the butt, leaving a deep depression when 
the shank is removed. Open and swelled butts, pressed and 
flat butts with flattened, glazed kernels, are objectionable and 
must be cut according to the judgment of the scorer. 

7. Kernels: (a) uniformity of, 10 points; (b) shape of, five 
points — The kernels should be uniform in shape and size'^ 
making it possible to secure uniformity in dropping with the 
planter, and consequently a good stand. The kernels should 
also be not only uniform in individual ear, but uniform with 
each ear in the sample. They should be uniform in color and 
true to variety type. The kernels should be so shaped that 
their edges touch from tip to crown. The tip portion of the 
kernel is rich in protein and oil, and hence of high feeding 
value. Kernels with a large germ insure strong, vigorous 
growth as well as richness in quality of kernel. 

8. Length of ear; 10 points — The length of ear varies ac- 
cording to variety type and the characteristics sought for by 
the individual breeder. Uniformity in I'ength is to be sought 
for in a sample, and a sample having even lengths of ears 
should score higher than one that varies, even if it be within 
the limits. Usual lengths of ears, 8^^ to 12 inches. Very long 
ears are objectionable because they usually have poor butts and 
tips, broad shallow kernels, and hence a low percentage of 
corn to cob. 

9. Circumference of ear ; five points — The points made on 
length of ear, differing with variety types, hold true also in 
circumference of ear. The circumference of the ear should 
be in symmetry with its length. An ear too great in circum- 
ference for its length is generally slow in maturing, and too 
frequently results in soft corn. Dimensions should be from 
6H to 9 inches in circumference. Measure the circumference 
at one-third the distance from the butt to the tip of the ear. 

10. (a) Furrows between rows; five points — The furrows be- 
tween the rows of kernels should be of sufficient size to permit 
the corn to dry out readily, but not so large as to lose pro- 
portion of corn to cob. (b) Space between tips of kernels at 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 257 

cob; five points — This is very objectionable, as it indicates im- 
maturity, weak constitution, and poor feeding value. 

II. Proportion of corn to cob; 10 points — The proportion of 
corn is determined by weight. Depth of kernels, size of cob, 
maturity, furrows and space at cob, all affect the proportion. 
In determining the proportion of corn to cob, weigh and shell 
every alternate ear in exhibit. Weigh the cobs and subtract 
from weight of ears, giving weight of corn ; divide the weight 
of corn by total weight of ears, which will give the per cent. 
of corn. Per cent, of corn should be from 86 to 87. For 
each per cent, short of standard a cut of 1^/2 points should be 
made. Each sample should consist of ten ears of corn. 



258 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 

Bureau of Animal Industry 
Dairy Dh'ision 



SANITARY INSPECTION OF CITY MILK PLANTS 



Owner or manager; Trade name: 

City: Street and No.: State: 



jMilk 

Number of w.igons : Gallons sold daily ' <. 

f Cream, 

Permit or license No.: Date of inspection: < 190 





Score 


Remarks 


' 


Perfect 


Allowed 


MILK ROOM 


10 




















Construction — 


10 

10 
1 

\ IS 

J 

\ 20 

1 

|,. 
























Light and ventilation 

Equipment — 
A rrangement (3) 




















Durability (2) 


















MILK 






Storage (8) 






SALES ROOM 
























WAGONS 
























Total 


1 00 













Sanitary conditions are — Excellent : Good ; 

Suggestions by inspector :. 



Fair; 



Poor : 



Sii^td : 



Inspector, 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 259 

WAGONS 

General Appearance. — If painted and in good repair, allow 2 points; for fair 

condition, i ; poor, o. 
Protection of Product. — If product is iced, allow 3 points; well protected but 

not iced, i ; no protection, o. 
Cleanliness. — If perfectly clean, allow 5; good, 3; fair, 2; poor, o. 

DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING 

FLAVOR 

If rich, sweet, clean, and pleasant flavor and odor, score perfect (40). De- 
duct for objectionable flavors and odors according to conditions found. 

COMPOSITION 

If 20 per cent, fat or above, score perfect (25). Deduct i point for each 
Yi per cent, fat below 20. 

BACTERIA 

Less than 10,000 per cubic centimeter. 20 (perfect). 

Over 10,000 anu less than 25,000 per cubic centimeter 19 

Over 25,000 and less than 50,000 per cubic centimeter 18 

Over 50,000 and less than 75,000 per cubic centimeter 17 

Over 75,000 and less than 100,000 per cubic centimeter 16 

Deduct I point for each 25,000 above 100,000. 

When an unusually large number of liquefying bacteria are present, further 
deduction should be made according to conditions found. 

ACIDITY 

If 0.2 per cent, or below, score perfect (5). Deduct i point for each o.oi 
per cent, above 0.2. (If Mann's test is used, discontinue adding indicator on 
first appearance of a pink color.) 

APPEARANCE OF PACKAGE AND CONTENTS 

If package is clean, free from metal parts, and no foreign matter can be 
detected in the contents, and physical condition of product is good, score per- 
fect (10). Make deductions according to conditions. 

DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING 
cows 

Condition. — Allow 2 if in good flesh. Deduct according to conditions. 

Health. — Allow 2 if apparently healthy. Deduct for indications of disease. 

Comfort. — Allow 2 for good conditions. Deduct i for poor (<i)* or no bed- 
ding (b) and i if left too long in cold outside (c) or inside (rf) of stable. 

Ventilation. — Allow 4 for good system — King or muslin curtain (a) — 2 for 
windows inclining inward at top (fr), i for sliding windows (c), and nothing 
for holes in ceiling id). 

Cubic Space per Cow. — Allow 3 if 500 to 1,000 cubic feet per cow, 2 for less 
than 500 and over 400, i for less than 400 and over 300. For less than 
300, o. Deduct I for each 500 cubic feet over 1,000 under winter conditions. 
*The letters a, b, c, etc., should be entered on score card to show condition 

of dairy, and when so entered should always indicate a deficiency. 



26o RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

Cleanliness. — Allow 5 if perfect. Deduct according to conditions. 

Food. — Allow 2 if good. Deduct for anything musty or decomposed. 

Water. — Allow 4 for clean running water in trough near stable (a) and 3 for 
same inside stable (b) ; deduct for running water distant from stable ac- 
cording to distance (c) ; deduct i for still water or water pumped by hand 
((/). (Water from windmill tanks under good conditions will be considered 
as running water.) 

STABLES 

Location. — Allow 3 if used for no other purpose (a), conveniently located (b), 
on well-drained ground (c), with yard protected from cold winds (rf). 
Deduct 3 if horses, swine, or poultry are kept in stable. Deduct i if 
poultry are allowed in stable during day. 

Construction. — Allow i yi for floor of good cement (a) or equally good 
material (b) in good condition (r); good wood floor 1 (</) ; properly con- 
structed gutter J^ (e) ; good stall if) ; swinging stanchion (g) or good tie 
yi (h) ; smooth tight ceiling ■/$ (i) ; ceiling proper height }4 (;) I side walls 
smooth and tight yi {k) ; convenient box stall J4 (/) ; good low-down 
manger ^ ()«). 

Cleanliness. — Allow 4 for a w.ashed floor (a), 2 if well swept (b), and i if 
well scraped (c). Allow i for clean side walls (rf), i for clean windows (e), 
and 1 for clean ceilings and ledges (O. 

Light. — Allow 5 for four square feet of unobstructed glass per stanchion or 
stall (a) and evenly distributed (b). Deduct 1/2 point for each square foot 
less than four; deduct 2 for uneven distribution of light, not exceeding 2 
points. 

Stable Air. — Allow 2 if free from dust and odors at time of milking. Deduct 
according to conditions. 

Removal of Manure. — Allow 2 if removed daily to field or to proper pit giving 
off no odor to stable. Deduct i if removed to yard and over 30 feet from 
stable; otherwise allow o. 

Stable Yard. — Allow ^ point if clean (a), and yi point if well drained (b). 
MILK HOUSE AND STORAGE 

Location. — Allow 2 if conveniently located (a), away from hog pen (b), privy 
(c), or other source of contamination (</). Deduct i for no clear air space 
between stable and milk room. 

Construction. — Allow 2 for tight, sound floor (a), walls and ceiling (b), well 
lighted (c), well ventilated (d). and free from flies {e). ■ 

Equipment. — Allow i point for hot water or steam for cleansing utensils (a); 
yi point for cooler in good condition (h) ; i for proper narrow-top milk 
pail (f ) ; yi point for general utensils properly constructed (d). 

Cleanliness. — Allow 3 if interior is clean. Deduct according to conditions. 

Utensils. — Allow 3 if clean (a); 2 for proper care (b) (inverted in pure air). 
Otherwise, o. 

Water Supply for Cleaning. — .\llow 5 if abundant, convenient, and pure. 
Deduct according to conditions. 

Storage. — Allow 5 if stored at so° F. or below; over 50° and not over S5° F., 
4; over 55° and not over 60^ F., 3; over 60° F., o. 

MILKING AND HANDLING MILK 

Cleanliness OF Milking. — Allow 3 for clean suits used only for milking ia) 
and kept in a clean place when not in use (b). Allow 4 for washing udders 
and teats and wiping them with, a clean towel (r ) : 2 if wiped with moist 
cloth onlv ((/); i if wiped with clean, dry cloth (c) ; o if cleaning is done 
after milker sits down to milk or if no attention is given. .Mlow 3 if milk- 
ing is done with clean, dry hands 

Prompt and Efficient Cooling. — Allow 5 if cooled immediately after each cow 
is milked. Allow 5 if cooled to 50° F. or below; over 50° and not over 
55° F., 4; over 55° and not over 60° F., 3; over 60° F., o. 

Protection During Transportation. — Allow 5 if iced and covered; 4 if cans 
are jacketed or covered with clean, wet blanket; 2 for dry blanket. If no 
protection, o. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



261 



UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 

Bureau of Animal Industry 

Dairy Division 

Sanitary Inspection of Dairies 

DAIRY SCORE CARD 

Owner or lessee of farm : 

Town: State: ._ 

Total No. of cows: No. milking : Quarts of milk produced daily: 

Product is sold at wholesale — retail. Name and address of dealer to whom shipped : 

Permit No Date of inspection : , 1 





Score 


Remarks 




Perfect 


Allowed 




COWS 


2 
3 
2 
4 
3 
5 
2 
4 

3 
5 
7 

5 

2 
2 
1 






Health: Outward appearance 


































Water 












Total 




Per cent, perfect 


STABLES 












































Total 


25 

2 

2 

3 

i 

5 
5 




Per cent, perfect 


MILK HOUSE AND STORAGE 
















































25 

10 
10 

5 




Per cent, perfect 


MILKING AND HANDLING MILK 

Cleanliness of milking 

Protection during transportation 
















Total 


25 




Per cent, perfect 


Total 


100 











Question I. Has the herd passed the tuberculin test within a year ? Yes. No. 
Question 2. Has the water supply been examined for contamination ? _ Yes. No. 
Question 3. Is there any case of contagious disease on the farm that is not properly 
isolated ? Yes. No. 

Signed : 

Inspector. 

Note. — If conditions are so exceptionally bad in any particular as to be inadequately 
expressed by a score of o the inspector will write BAD in the column of Remarks, 
opposite the o. 



262 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY 

DAIRY DIVISION 



SCORE CARD FOR MARKET CREAM 



Exhibitor ■ 

Address ... 



Numerical Score 



Flavor, 
40 



Composition, 
25 



Bacteria, 



Acidity, 



Appearance of 
package and 
contents, 10 



Perfect score, 
100 



Judge's score 



Remarks 



Date. 



Descriptive Score 



Flavor 


Composition 


Bacteria 


Acidity 


Package and 
Contents 


Excellent 

Good 

Fair 


Perfect 

Fat. . .per cent. 


Perfect 

Total 


Perfect 
per cent. 


Perfect 

Foreign matter 
Metal parts 


Bad 


Liquefieis 


Flat 

Bitter 

Weedy 

Garlic 

Silage 

Smothered 

Manure 

Other taints 


Unattractive 

Lumpy 

Frothy 



{Signature) 



Judge. 



RURAL SCHOOL AOklCL'LTURE 263 

DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING 

MILK ROOM 

Location. — If not connected by door with any other building, and surroundings 
are good, 10; when connected with other rooms, such as kitchens, stables, 
etc., make deductions according to conditions. 
Construction. — If good cement floor, and tight, smooth walls and ceiling, and 
good drainage, allow 10; deduct for cracked or decayed floors, imperfect wall 
and ceiling, etc. 
Cleanliness. — If perfectly clean throughout, allow 15; deduct for bad odors, 

unclean floor and walls, cobwebs, unnecessary articles stored in room, etc. 
Light and N'entilation. — If window space is equivalent to 15 per cent, or more 
of the floor space, allow 5; deduct i point for every 3 per cent, less than 
the above amount. 
Fquipment: 

Arrangement. — Allow 3 poinis for good arrangement; if some of the equip- 
ment is out of doors or so placed that it cannot be readily cleaned, make 
deductions according to circumstances. 
Condition. — If in good repair, allow 4 points; make deductions for rusty, 

worn-out, or damaged apparatus. 
Construction — 

Sanitary: If seams are smooth, and all parts can be readily cleaned, allow 

2. Deduct for poor construction, from sanitary standpoint. 
Ditrabl iy : If made stroi:g and of good material, allow 2. Deduct for 
light construction and poor material. 
Cleanliness. — If perfectly clean, allow 8 points; make deductions according 
to amount of apparatus improperly cleaned. 

MILK 

Handling. — If milk is promptly cooled to 50° F. or lower, allow 12 points; 
or if pasteurized at a temperature of i4y° F. or above and promptly cooled 
to 50° or lower, allow 12 points. Deduct i point for every 2° above 50°. 
If milk is pasteurized imperfectly, deduct 6 points. If milk is improperly 
bottled or otherwise poorly handled, make deductions accordingly. 

Storage. — If stored at a temperature of 45° F. or below, allow 8 points. De- 
duct I point for every 2° above 45^. 

SALES ROOM 

Location. — If exterior surroundings are good and building is not connected 

with any other under undesirable conditions, allow 2; for fair conditions 

allow I ; poor conditions, o. 
Construction. — If constructed of material that can be kept clean and sanitary, 

allow 2; for fair construction ;t11ow i; poor construction, o. 
EouiPMENT. — If well equipped with everything necessary for the trade, allow 

2; fair equipment, i; poor equipment, o. 
Cleanliness. — If perfectly clean, allow 4 points; if conditions are good, 2; fair, 

1 ; poor, o. 



INDEX 



Absorption 8 

Adhesion 5 

Alfalfa 38 

Alkali soils 117 

Annuals 2g 

Apples, decaying of 191 

forms of 192, 193 

judging 194 

Ash, composition of 26 

of plants 21, T78 

Assimilation 16 

Atmosphere, composition of . . 13 

Babcock tester 189, 190 

Barley, acreage, production of 44 

field study of 36 

Beetles, study of 231, 232 

Biennials 29 

Birds, value of, to farmers 3^ 

Bolls of cotton. ... 170, 171 

Bordeaux mixture 237 

Bottle, killing 220 

Budding 204 

time for 205 

Bumblebee, study of 233 

Butter 188 

Butterfly, study of 235 

Cabbage butterfly 235, 236 

Calendar for spraying 239 

Calyx 72 

use of 74 

Carbohydrates 182, 183 

Carbon dioxide 61 

formed by germinating seed 88 

percentage in atmosphere.. 13 

properties of 14 

Cereals, field study of 36 

Change, physical and chemical 3 

Chemical elements in plants. . 114 
Chlorophyll, formation of, 

prevented by cold 25 

formed in sunlight 6r 

Churning 188 

Cicada 227 

Clay 96, 107, 108, no 

Cleft grafting 199, 200 

Clover, helping the farmer... 124 

relation of bumblebees to... 233 

stand of 37 

Cohesion 5 

Coleoptera 218 

Composition, farm products 

178, 179 



PACE 

Composition, feeding stuffs. . . 180 

of corn 179 

Condensation 7, 10 

Conditions of matter i 

Copper sulphate 237 

Corn, brace roots of 53 

compared with other cereals 36 

comparison of kernels 143 

composition of 179 

effect of detasseling 152, 153 

effect of smut upon the yield 157 

mt-chanical selection of 1^0 

method of harvesting of ... . 158 

moisture in 154 

per cent, of corn and cob. . . 132 

pollination of 147 

tasseling and silking period 

ff MS 

testing seed of 126 

transmitting characteristics 129 

types of 133 

variation in individual ears. 128 

Corolla 71 

use of 74 

Cotton, botanical study of.... 166 
comparison of large, medium 

and small plants 170 

ideal plant 172, 173, 174, 175 

improvement by selection 

176, 177 

proportion of parts of plant 168 

variation in number of bolls 170 

Crops, rotation of 34 

summary of 46 

Cuttings, hardwood 2c6 

kinds of 207 

Cutworm 217 

Cyanide bottle 220 

De Candolle's classification of 

plants 28 

Deliquescent trees 69 

Detasseling corn 152, 153 

Diptera 217 

Dragon-fly, study of 225 

Emulsion, kerosene 238 

Evaporation 11,99, '05 

Excurrent trees 69 

Fertilizer, cost of 121 

ingredients 115 

problems of 121 

Flour 161 

Flowers, parts of. 71 



266 



INDEX 



Flowers, relation of, to insects 74 

strawberry 78, 80 

uses of parts of 74 

Formalin 187 

Fruit, thinning of 195, 196 



Germination 

affected by freezing 

affected by light 

affected by types of soil. . .. 

standards of . 

Gluten 

Goodale's contrast of assimila- 

tionand respiration in plants 
Grafting, cleft 199, 

tools 

wax 

whip 

Grasshopper, study of 223, 



Harrows, types of 

uses of 

Harvest-fly 

Hay, acreage, production of. 

for horses 

Hemiptera 

Herbarium specimens 

Hornet 

Humus 108 

Hygroscopic moisture 

Hymenoptera 



16 
200 
199 
198 
201 
224 



40 
227 



217 

240 
218 
109 
102 
218 



Improvement, school grounds 

21^, 214, 215 

Inoculation of soils for alfalfa 38 

Insects, destroyed by birds.. . 33 

orders of 216,217, 218 

preparation for collecting. . . 219 

preservation of 221 

relation of, to plants 76 

Inventory of the farm 48 

Judging apples 194 

Kerosene emulsion 238 

Lawn 214, 215 

Leaves, effects of sunlight on. 60 

Legumes 125 

Lepidoptera 217 

Lime-sulphur wash 238 

Litmus paper 98 

Map, home grounds 213, 214 

Matter, conditions of i 

organic and inorganic 26 

Milk, flavor of, affected by 

feeds 185 

pasteurizing 186, 187 

souring of 186, 187 

test for formalin 187 

Moisture, in corn and cob 154 

in plants 114 

kinds in the soil 102 



PAGE 

Mulches 105 

Net, insect 219, 220 

Neuroptera 216 

Nitrate of soda 122 

Nitric acid, constituent of at- 
mosphere 13 

effect on copper 17 

Nitrogen, as fertilizer 

115, 118, 122, 180 

-free extract 178, 179 

gatherers of 34 

per cent, in atmosphere . 13 

Nutritive ratio 182 

Nymphs 224 

Oats, acreage, production of. . 44 

field study of 36 

quality of 165 

smut of 164 

Osmosis 18, 19 

Ovary 71 

Ovipositor 224 

Oxygen, per cent, in atmos- 
phere 13 

Ozone 13 

Paris green 238 

Pasteurizing 188 

Perennials 29 

Petals 73 

Phosphoric acid 115, 119, 122 

Pistils 71, 73 

use of 74, 79 

Plants, classification of 28, 29 

effect of cold on 24 

food for 93, 94 

forms of food used by 2 

herbarium specimens 240 

influenced by different 

amounts of air 22 

resistant to drought 23 

selection of food of 17 

struggle for existence of 31 

transpiration of water by. . . 59 

Pollen 73 

Pollination of corn. .. .147, 148, 149 

Potash 115, 122 

Potassium cyanide 220 

Potatoes, culture of 43 

effect of number of eyes on 

yield 42 

Propagating, grapes 206 

trees 202 

Protein 182 

Pruning 210 

Questioning the soil 122 

Raspberries 197 

Rations for animals 182 

Respiration of plants 16 

Rolling the soil qq 

Root-hairs 57 



INDEX 



267 



PAGE 

Roots, direction of growth of. 55 

forms of 51, 52, 53 

method of growth 50 

Rose cuttings 80 

Rotation of crops 34 

Rye, acreage, production of . . 44 

field study of 36 

Salt solutions 117 

School grounds, improvement 

of 213, 214. 215 

Scion, grafting 202 

Seeding alfalfa 37 

Seedlings 31 

Seeds, depth of planting of 87 

destroyed by birds 33 

forming carbon dioxide 88 

germination of, affected by 

age 84 

large and small, value of ... go 

modes of dissemination of.. 27 

Nature's planting of 30 

number produced 32 

Sepal 71, 73 

Soils, acidity of g8 

air in 106 

color of loi 

leachina: of no 

moisture of 102 

types of 95, 112 



PAGE 

Spraying, calendar for 239 

material 237, 23S 

Stamen 71, 73 

use of 74, 79 

Stock, grafting igS, 202 

Tassels 145, 146 

Temperature, for churning. .. 188 

of soils go, TOO, loi 

Testing, milk 189 

seeds 84, 126 

Thinning fruit 195 

Transpiration tg 

Transplanting trees 208 

rules for 208, 209 

Trees, annual rings ... 64 

forms of 6q 

transplanting of 208 

Value, farm products 44, 45, 48 

of missing hill 155, 156 

Wax, grafting 198 

Wheat, acrea.ge, production of 44 

field study of 36 

relation between length of 

straw and yield of grain 162 
relation between length of 
straw and number of 

stalks per acre 163 



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agricultural principles involved in every-day life. The book, 
although primarily intended for use in schools, is equally 
valuable to any one desiring to obtain in an easy and pleasing 
manner a general knowledge of elementary agriculture. Fully 
illustrated. 5^2 ^ 8 inches. 462 pages. Cloth. Net . $1.50 

Soil Physics Laboratory Guide 

By W. G. Stevenson and I. O. Schaub. A carefully out- 
lined series of experiments in soil physics. A portion of the 
experiments outlined in this guide have been used quite gen- 
erally in recent years. The exercises (of which there are 40) 
are listed in a logical order with reference to their relation 
to each other and the skill required on the part of the student. 
Illustrated. About 100 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . $0.50 



OCT 9 



1907 






7 ^- t^ 



11 



1IBR\K\ (>t CONGRESS 



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